What is the most popular beverage in the world

When the human body becomes dehydrated, a person experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete deprivation of drinks (that is, water) will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance besides oxygen.[1] Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history.[1] As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases.[2]

As society developed, techniques were discovered to create alcoholic drinks from the plants that were available in different areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia (c. 6000 BCE)[3][4][5] and Iran (c. 5000 BCE).[6] Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE,[7] and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.[8] The invention of beer (and bread) has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization.[9][10][11] Tea likely originated in Yunnan, China, during the Shang Dynasty (1500 BCE–1046 BCE) as a medicinal drink.[12]

Drinking has been a large part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a social gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium, where watered down wine would be drunk. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence. In Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly.

Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods,[13] leading to the creation of gods such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons. In some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion.

Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink.[13] Another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty.[13]

In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in native religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the Ethiopian Church banned the secular consumption of coffee until the reign of Emperor Menelik II.[14] The drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons[15] and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.

A drink is a form of liquid which has been prepared for human consumption. The preparation can include a number of different steps, some prior to transport, others immediately prior to consumption.

Purification of water

Further information: Water purification

Water is the chief constituent in all drinks, and the primary ingredient in most. Water is purified prior to drinking. Methods for purification include filtration and the addition of chemicals, such as chlorination. The importance of purified water is highlighted by the World Health Organization, who point out 94% of deaths from diarrhea – the third biggest cause of infectious death worldwide at 1.8 million annually – could be prevented by improving the quality of the victim's environment, particularly safe water.[16]

Pasteurisation

Pasteurisation is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified temperature, then immediately cooling. The process reduces the growth of microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage. It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurisation is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness.[17]

Juicing

Further information: Juice and Pressing (wine)

The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables can take a number of forms. Simple crushing of most fruits will provide a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit. Both crushing and pressing are processes used in the production of wine.

Infusion

Infusion is the process of extracting flavours from plant material by allowing the material to remain suspended within water. This process is used in the production of teas, herbal teas and can be used to prepare coffee (when using a coffee press).

Percolation

Further information: Coffee percolation

The name is derived from the word "percolate" which means to cause (a solvent) to pass through a permeable substance especially for extracting a soluble constituent.[18] In the case of coffee-brewing the solvent is water, the permeable substance is the coffee grounds, and the soluble constituents are the chemical compounds that give coffee its color, taste, aroma, and stimulating properties.

Carbonation

Carbonation is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide into a liquid, such as water.

Fermentation

Further information: Fermentation, Fermentation in winemaking, and Beer

Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to ethanol. Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of drinks since the Neolithic age. In winemaking, grape juice is combined with yeast in an anaerobic environment to allow the fermentation.[19] The amount of sugar in the wine and the length of time given for fermentation determine the alcohol level and the sweetness of the wine.[20]

When brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients – water, grain, yeast and hops. The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting. It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation. This process is known as mashing. Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process.[21]

Distillation

Further information: Distillation and Distilled beverage

Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid mixture. It is one of the methods used in the purification of water. It is also a method of producing spirits from milder alcoholic drinks.

Mixing

Further information: Cocktail

An alcoholic mixed drink that contains two or more ingredients is referred to as a cocktail. Cocktails were originally a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters.[22] The term is now often used for almost any mixed drink that contains alcohol, including mixers, mixed shots, etc.[23] A cocktail today usually contains one or more kinds of spirit and one or more mixers, such as soda or fruit juice. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs.[24]

A non-alcoholic drink is one that contains little or no alcohol. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider if they contain a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume (ABV). The exact definition of what is "non-alcoholic" and what is not depends on local laws: in the United Kingdom, "alcohol-free beer" is under 0.05% ABV, "de-alcoholised beer" is under 0.5%, while "low-alcohol beer" can contain no more than 1.2% ABV.[25] The term "soft drink" specifies the absence of alcohol in contrast to "hard drink" and "drink". The term "drink" is theoretically neutral, but often is used in a way that suggests alcoholic content. Drinks such as soda pop, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, root beer, fruit punch, milk, hot chocolate, tea, coffee, milkshakes, and tap water and energy drinks are all soft drinks.

Water

See also: Drinking water and Water resources

Water is the world's most consumed drink,[26] however, 97% of water on Earth is non-drinkable salt water.[27] Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and frozen glaciers.[28] Less than 1% of the Earth's fresh water supplies are accessible through surface water and underground sources which are cost effective to retrieve.[29]

In western cultures, water is often drunk cold. In the Chinese culture, it is typically drunk hot.[30]

Milk

Milk is regarded as one of the "original" drinks,[31] milk is the primary source of nutrition for babies. In many cultures of the world, especially the Western world, humans continue to consume dairy milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a drink.

Soft drinks

See also: Carbonation and Soft drink

Carbonated drinks refer to drinks which have carbon dioxide dissolved into them. This can happen naturally through fermenting and in natural water spas or artificially by the dissolution of carbon dioxide under pressure. The first commercially available artificially carbonated drink is believed to have been produced by Thomas Henry in the late 1770s.[32] Cola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be added later.[33]

The most consumed carbonated soft drinks are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group.[34]

Juice and plant drinks

Fruit juice is a natural product that contains few or no additives. Citrus products such as orange juice and tangerine juice are familiar breakfast drinks, while grapefruit juice, pineapple, apple, grape, lime, and lemon juice are also common. Coconut water is a highly nutritious and refreshing juice. Many kinds of berries are crushed; their juices are mixed with water and sometimes sweetened. Raspberry, blackberry and currants are popular juices drinks but the percentage of water also determines their nutritive value. Grape juice allowed to ferment produces wine.

Fruits are highly perishable so the ability to extract juices and store them was of significant value. Some fruits are highly acidic and mixing them with water and sugars or honey was often necessary to make them palatable. Fruits can also be blended with ice and other ingredients to make a smoothie. Early storage of fruit juices was labor-intensive, requiring the crushing of the fruits and the mixing of the resulting pure juices with sugars before bottling.

Vegetable juices are usually served warm or cold. Different types of vegetables can be used to make vegetable juice such as carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, celery and many more. Some vegetable juices are mixed with some fruit juice to make the vegetable juice taste better. Many popular vegetable juices, particularly ones with high tomato content, are high in sodium, and therefore consumption of them for health must be carefully considered. Some vegetable juices provide the same health benefits as whole vegetables in terms of reducing risks of cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Plant milk is a general term for any milk-like product that is derived from a plant source. The most common varieties internationally are soy milk, almond milk, rice milk and coconut milk.

Sleep drinks

A nightcap is a drink taken shortly before bedtime to induce sleep. For example, a small alcoholic drink or a cup of warm milk can supposedly promote a good night's sleep. Today, most nightcaps and relaxation drinks are generally non-alcoholic beverages containing calming ingredients. They are considered beverages which serve to relax a person. Unlike other calming beverages, such as tea, warm milk or milk with honey; relaxation drinks almost universally contain more than one active ingredient. Relaxation drinks have been known to contain other natural ingredients and are usually free of caffeine and alcohol but some have claimed to contain marijuana.

Alcoholic drinks

Main article: Alcoholic drink

A drink is considered "alcoholic" if it contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of "alcohol" includes many other compounds). Beer has been a part of human civilisation for around 8,000 years.[40]

Beer

Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat.[41] Most beer is also flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included. The preparation of beer is called brewing. Beer is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic drink,[42] and is the third-most consumed drink overall, after water and tea. It is said to have been discovered by goddess Ninkasi around 5300 BCE, when she accidentally discovered yeast after leaving grain in jars that were later rained upon and left for several days. Women have been the chief creators of beer throughout history due to its association with domesticity and it, throughout much of history, being brewed in the home for family consumption. Only in recent history have men begun to dabble in the field.[43][44] It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented drink.[45][46][47][48]

Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours,[49] and "The Hymn to Ninkasi", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people.[50][51] Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.

Cider

Cider is a fermented alcoholic drink made from fruit juice, most commonly and traditionally apple juice, but also the juice of peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider may be made from any variety of apple, but certain cultivars grown solely for use in cider are known as cider apples.[52] The United Kingdom has the highest per capita consumption of cider, as well as the largest cider-producing companies in the world,[53] As of 2006[update], the U.K. produces 600 million litres of cider each year (130 million imperial gallons).[54]

Wine

Wine glasses with white wine and red wine

Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes or other fruits. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients.[55] Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. The well-known variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation, along with human intervention in the overall process. The final product may contain tens of thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a few parts per billion.

Wines made from produce besides grapes are usually named after the product from which they are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term "wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified drinks having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine, huangjiu, or sake.

Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest production so far discovered having occurred c. 6000 BC in Georgia.[4][56][5] It had reached the Balkans by c. 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece and Rome.

From its earliest appearance in written records, wine has also played an important role in religion. Red wine was closely associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians, who, according to Plutarch, avoided its free consumption as late as the 7th-century BC Saite dynasty, "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods".[57] The Greek cult and mysteries of Dionysus, carried on by the Romans in their Bacchanalia, were the origins of western theater. Judaism incorporates it in the Kiddush and Christianity in its Eucharist, while alcohol consumption was forbidden in Islam.

Spirits

Further information: List of alcoholic drinks § Distilled beverages

Spirits are distilled beverages that contain no added sugar and have at least 20% alcohol by volume (ABV). Popular spirits include borovička, brandy, gin, rum, slivovitz, tequila, vodka, and whisky. Brandy is a spirit created by distilling wine, whilst vodka may be distilled from any starch- or sugar-rich plant matter; most vodka today is produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye or wheat.

Hot drinks

Coffee

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreen shrub of the genus Coffea. The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded Coffea arabica, and the "robusta" form of the hardier Coffea canephora. Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries. Once ripe, coffee "berries" are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee.

Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–5.1[58]) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine content. It is one of the most popular drinks in the world.[59] It can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. The effect of coffee on human health has been a subject of many studies; however, results have varied in terms of coffee's relative benefit.[60]

Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia;[61] the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen.[61]

Coffee may have been used socially in the renaissance period of the 17th century.[62] The increasing trades between Europe and North Africa regions made coffee more widely available to Europeans gathering at social locations that served coffee, possibly contributing to the growth of coffeehouses.[62]

Hot chocolate

Hot chocolate, also known as drinking chocolate or cocoa, is a heated drink consisting of shaved chocolate, melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and usually a sweetener. Hot chocolate may be topped with whipped cream. Hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency.[63]

The first chocolate drink is believed to have been created by the Mayans around 2,500-3,000 years ago, and a cocoa drink was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD, by which they referred to as xocōlātl.[64][65] The drink became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then. Until the 19th century, hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases.

Hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations, including the spiced chocolate para mesa of Latin America, the very thick cioccolata calda served in Italy and chocolate a la taza served in Spain, and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses and teahouses. Powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores and online.

Tea

Main article: Tea

Tea, the second most consumed drink in the world, is produced from infusing dried leaves of the camellia sinensis shrub, in boiling water.[66] There are many ways in which tea is prepared for consumption: lemon or milk and sugar are among the most common additives worldwide. Other additions include butter and salt in Bhutan, Nepal, and Tibet; bubble tea in Taiwan; fresh ginger in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; mint in North Africa and Senegal; cardamom in Central Asia; rum to make Jagertee in Central Europe; and coffee to make yuanyang in Hong Kong. Tea is also served differently from country to country: in China and Japan tiny cups are used to serve tea; in Thailand and the United States tea is often served cold (as "iced tea") or with a lot of sweetener; Indians boil tea with milk and a blend of spices as masala chai; tea is brewed with a samovar in Iran, Kashmir, Russia and Turkey; and in the Australian Outback it is traditionally brewed in a billycan.[67] Tea leaves can be processed in different ways resulting in a drink which appears and tastes different. Chinese yellow and green tea are steamed, roasted and dried; Oolong tea is semi-oxidised and appears green-black and black teas are fully oxidised.[68]

Herbal tea

Main article: Tisane

Around the world, people refer to other herbal infusions as "teas"; it is also argued that these were popular long before the Camellia sinensis shrub was used for tea making.[69] Leaves, flowers, roots or bark can be used to make a herbal infusion and can be bought fresh, dried or powdered.[70]

Throughout history, people have come together in establishments to socialise whilst drinking. This includes cafés and coffeehouses, focus on providing hot drinks as well as light snacks. Many coffee houses in the Middle East, and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world, offer shisha (nargile in Turkish and Greek), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah. Espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specialize in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks.

In China and Japan, the establishment would be a tea house, where people would socialise while drinking tea. Chinese scholars have used the teahouse as a place to share ideas.

Alcoholic drinks are served in drinking establishments, which have different cultural connotations. For example, pubs are fundamental to the culture of Britain,[71][72] Ireland,[73] Australia,[74] Canada, New England, Metro Detroit, South Africa and New Zealand. In many places, especially in villages, a pub can be the focal point of the community. The writings of Samuel Pepys describe the pub as the heart of England. Many pubs are controlled by breweries, so cask ale or keg beer may be a better value than wines and spirits.

In contrast, types of bars range from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed "dive bars",[75] to elegant places of entertainment for the elite. Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. The term "bar" is derived from the specialized counter on which drinks are served. Some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, or they may sit at tables and be served by cocktail servers.

Matching with food

Main article: Wine and food matching

Food and drink are often paired together to enhance the taste experience. This primarily happens with wine and a culture has grown up around the process. Weight, flavors and textures can either be contrasted or complemented.[76] In recent years, food magazines began to suggest particular wines with recipes and restaurants would offer multi-course dinners matched with a specific wine for each course.[77]

Presentation

Different drinks have unique receptacles for their consumption. This is sometimes purely for presentations purposes, such as for cocktails. In other situations, the drinkware has practical application, such as coffee cups which are designed for insulation or brandy snifters which are designed to encourage evaporation but trap the aroma within the glass.

Many glasses include a stem, which allows the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink. In champagne glasses, the bowl is designed to retain champagne's signature carbonation, by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl. Historically, champagne has been served in a champagne coupe, the shape of which allowed carbonation to dissipate even more rapidly than from a standard wine glass.

An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004,[78] and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005.[79] Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.[80]

Investment

Some drinks, such as wine, can be used as an alternative investment.[81] This can be achieved by either purchasing and reselling individual bottles or cases of particular wines, or purchasing shares in an investment wine fund that pools investors' capital.[82]

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61. ^ a b Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bealer, Bonnie K. (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. New York: Routledge. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-415-92722-2. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
62. ^ a b Outram, Dorinda (1995). The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press.
63. ^ Grivetti, Louis E.; Shapiro, Howard-Yana (2009). Chocolate: history, culture, and heritage. John Wiley and Sons. p. 345. ISBN 978-0-470-12165-8.
64. ^ Bee Wilson (15 Sep 2009). "Aztecs and cacao: the bittersweet past of chocolate". Telegraph.
65. ^ Trivedi, Bijal (July 17, 2012). "Ancient Chocolate Found in Maya "Teapot"". National Geographic. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
66. ^ Martin, Laura C. (2007). Tea: The Drink that Changed the World. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-8048-3724-8.
67. ^ Saberi, Helen (2010). Tea: A Global History. Reaktion Books. pp. 7. ISBN 978-1-86189-892-0.
68. ^ Gibson, E.L.; Rycroft, J.A. (2011). "41". In Victor R. Preedy (ed.). Psychological and Physiological Consequences of Drinking Tea in Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition. Watson, R.; Martin, C. Springer. pp. 621–623. ISBN 978-0-387-92271-3.
69. ^ Mars, Brigitte (2009). Healing Herbal Teas: A Complete Guide to Making Delicious, Healthful Beverages. ReadHowYouWant.com. pp. vi. ISBN 978-1-4429-6955-1.
70. ^ Safi, Tammy (2001). Healthy Teas: Green, Black, Herbal, Fruit (Illustrated ed.). Tuttle Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7946-5004-9.
71. ^ Public House Britannica.com; Subscription Required. Retrieved 3 July 2008.
72. ^ "Scottish pubs". Insiders-scotland-guide.com. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
73. ^ Cronin, Michael; O'Connor, Barbara (2003). Barbara O'Connor (ed.). Irish Tourism: image, culture, and identity. Tourism and Cultural Change. Vol. 1. Channel View Publications. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-873150-53-5. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
74. ^ Australian Drinking Culture Convict Creations. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
75. ^ Todd Dayton, San Francisco's Best Dive Bars, page 4. Ig Publishing. 2009. ISBN 978-0-9703125-8-7. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
76. ^ M. Oldman "Oldman's Guide to Outsmarting Wine" pg 219-235 Penguin Books 2004 ISBN 0-14-200492-8
77. ^ K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 83-88 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1-56305-434-5
78. ^ "FAO Statistical Yearbook 2004 Vol. 1/1 Table C.10: Most important imports and exports of agricultural products (in value terms) (2004)" (PDF). FAO Statistics Division. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-25. Retrieved September 13, 2007.
79. ^ "FAOSTAT Core Trade Data (commodities/years)". FAO Statistics Division. 2007. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007. To retrieve export values: Select the "commodities/years" tab. Under "subject", select "Export value of primary commodity." Under "country," select "World." Under "commodity," hold down the shift key while selecting all commodities under the "single commodity" category. Select the desired year and click "show data." A list of all commodities and their export values will be displayed.
80. ^ Mussatto, Solange I.; Machado, Ercília M. S.; Martins, Silvia; Teixeira, José A. (2011). "Production, Composition, and Application of Coffee and Its Industrial Residues" (PDF). Food and Bioprocess Technology. 4 (5): 661–72. doi:10.1007/s11947-011-0565-z. hdl:1822/22361. S2CID 27800545.
81. ^ Greenwood, John (2008-10-06). "First class returns for alternative investments".
82. ^ "Buying wine for investment". IFWIC.org. Archived from the original on 16 January 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2012.

• Kummer, Corby (August 19, 2003). The Joy of Coffee: The Essential guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-30240-6.

• Hana LaRock (30 Aug 2019). "8 of the world's most unusual drinks". CNN.
•   Beverages at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject
• Health-EU Portal – Alcohol
• Wikibooks Cookbook
• Women and Beer: A Forgotten Pairing (National Women's History Museum)

Main article: Timeline of the 17th century

• 1601: In the Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system.
• 1601–1603: The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia.[5]
• 1602: Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World (坤輿萬國全圖, Kūnyú Wànguó Quántú), a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries.
• 1602: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies.[6] Its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age.
• 1603: Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England.
• 1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of shōgun, establishing the Tokugawa shogunate. This begins the Edo period, which will last until 1868.
• 1603: In Nagasaki, the Portuguese Jesuit missionary João Rodrigues publishes Nippo Jisho, the first dictionary of Japanese to a European (Portuguese) language.
• 1605: The King of Gowa, a Makassarese kingdom in South Sulawesi, converts to Islam.

   

  Tsar Michael I of Russia reigned 1613–1645

• 1605–1627: The reign of Mughal emperor Jahangir after the death of emperor Akbar.
• 1606: The Long Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and Austria is ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok—Austria abandons Transylvania.
• 1606: Treaty of Vienna ends an anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary.
• 1607: Flight of the Earls (the fleeing of most of the native Gaelic aristocracy) occurs from County Donegal in the west of Ulster in Ireland.
• 1607: Iskandar Muda becomes the Sultan of Aceh for 30 years. He will launch a series of naval conquests that will transform Aceh into a great power in the western Malay Archipelago.
• 1610: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth army defeats combined Russian–Swedish forces at the Battle of Klushino and conquers Moscow.
• 1610: King Henry IV of France is assassinated by François Ravaillac.
• 1611: The Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, the oldest existing university in Asia, is established by the Dominican Order in Manila[7]
• 1611: The first publication of the King James Bible.
• 1612: The first Cotswold Olympic Games, an annual public celebration of games and sports begins in the Cotswolds, England.
• 1613: The Time of Troubles in Russia ends with the establishment of the House of Romanov, which rules until 1917.
• 1613–1617: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is invaded by the Tatars dozens of times.[8]

   

  James I of England and VI of Scotland ruled in the first quarter of the 17th century

• 1613: The Dutch East India Company is forced to evacuate Gresik due to the Mataram siege in neighboring Surabaya. The dutch negotiates with Mataram and is allowed to set up a trading post in Jepara.
• 1614–1615: The Siege of Osaka (last major threat to Tokugawa shogunate) ends.
• 1616: The last remaining Moriscos (Moors who had nominally converted to Christianity) in Spain are expelled.
• 1616: English poet and playwright William Shakespeare dies.
• 1618: The Defenestration of Prague.
• 1618: The Bohemian Revolt precipitates the Thirty Years' War, which devastates Europe in the years 1618–48.
• 1618: The Manchus start invading China. Their conquest eventually topples the Ming dynasty.
• 1619: European slaving reaches America when the first Africans are brought to the present-day United States.
• 1619: The Dutch East India Company storm Jayakarta and withstand a months-long siege by the combined English, Bantenese and Jayakartan forces. They are relieved by Jan Pieterszoon Coen and a fleet of ships from Ambon. The dutch destroys Jayakarta and builds its new headquarters, Batavia, on top of it.

• 1620–1621: Polish–Ottoman War over Moldavia.
• 1620: Bethlen Gabor allies with the Ottomans and an invasion of Moldavia takes place. The Polish suffer a disaster at Cecora on the River Prut.
• 1620: The Mayflower sets sail from Plymouth, England to what became the Plymouth Colony in New England.

   

  The 1622 massacre was instrumental in causing English colonists to view all natives as enemies

• 1621: The Battle of Chocim: Poles and Cossacks under Jan Karol Chodkiewicz defeat the Ottomans.
• 1622: Jamestown massacre: Algonquian natives kill 347 English settlers outside Jamestown, Virginia (one-third of the colony's population)[citation needed] and burn the Henricus settlement.
• 1624–1642: As chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu centralises power in France.
• 1626: St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican completed.
• 1627: Aurochs go extinct.[9]
• 1628–1629: Sultan Agung of Mataram launches a failed campaign to conquer Dutch Batavia.
• 1629: Abbas I, the Safavids king, died.
• 1629: Cardinal Richelieu allies with Swedish Protestant forces in the Thirty Years' War to counter Ferdinand II's expansion.
• 1630: Birth of Shivaji at Shivneri fort, Maharashtra, India
• 1631: Mount Vesuvius erupts.
• 1632: Battle of Lützen, death of king of Sweden Gustav II Adolf.

   

  Battle of Nördlingen (1634). The Catholic Imperial army, bolstered by professional Habsburg Spanish troops won a great victory in the battle over the combined Protestant armies of Sweden and their German allies

• 1632: Taj Mahal building work started in Agra, India.
• 1633: Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the Inquisition.
• 1633–1639: Japan transforms into "locked country".
• 1634: Battle of Nördlingen results in Catholic victory.
• 1636: Harvard University is founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
• 1637: Shimabara Rebellion of Japanese Christians, rōnin and peasants against Edo.
• 1637: The first opera house, Teatro San Cassiano, opens in Venice.
• 1637: Qing dynasty attacked the Joseon dynasty.
• 1639: Naval Battle of the Downs – Republic of the United Provinces fleet decisively defeats a Spanish fleet in English waters.
• 1639: Disagreements between the Farnese and Barberini Pope Urban VIII escalate into the Wars of Castro and last until 1649.
• 1639–1651: Wars of the Three Kingdoms, civil wars throughout Scotland, Ireland, and England.
• 1640–1668: The Portuguese Restoration War led to the end of the Iberian Union.

   

  Åbo Akademi University's inauguration on 1640 in Turku.

• 1641: The Irish Rebellion, by Irish Catholics who wanted an end to discrimination, greater self-governance, and reverse ownership of the plantations of Ireland.
• 1641: René Descartes publishes Meditationes de prima philosophia Meditations on First Philosophy.
• 1642: Beginning of English Civil War, conflict will end in 1649 with the execution of King Charles I, abolishment of the monarchy and the establishment of the supremacy of Parliament over the king.
• 1643: L'incoronazione di Poppea, Monterverdi
• 1644: The Manchu conquer China ending the Ming dynasty. The subsequent Qing dynasty rules until 1912.
• 1644–1674: The Mauritanian Thirty-Year War.
• 1645–1669: Ottoman war with Venice. The Ottomans invade Crete and capture Canea.
• 1647–1652: The Great Plague of Seville.
• 1648: The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War and marks the ends of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire as major European powers.

   

  Map of Europe in 1648 at the end of the Thirty Years' War

• 1648–1653: Fronde civil war in France.
• 1648–1657: The Khmelnytsky Uprising – a Cossack rebellion in Ukraine which turned into a Ukrainian war of liberation from Poland.
• 1648–1667: The Deluge wars leave Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in ruins.
• 1648–1669: The Ottomans capture Crete from the Venetians after the Siege of Candia.
• 1649: King Charles I is executed for high treason, the first and only English king to be subjected to legal proceedings in a High Court of Justice and put to death.
• 1649–1653: The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.

• 1651: English Civil War ends with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester.
• 1656–1661: Mehmed Köprülü is Grand Vizier.
• 1655–1661: The Northern Wars cement Sweden's rise as a Great Power.
• 1658: After his father Shah Jahan completes the Taj Mahal, his son Aurangzeb deposes him as ruler of the Mughal Empire.
• 1660: The Commonwealth of England ends and the monarchy is brought back during the English Restoration.
• 1660: The Royal Society is founded.
• 1661: The reign of the Kangxi Emperor of China begins.
• 1663: Ottoman war against Habsburg Hungary.
• 1664: The Battle of St. Gotthard: count Raimondo Montecuccoli defeats the Ottomans. The Peace of Vasvar – intended to keep the peace for 20 years.
• 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells using a microscope.
• 1665: Portugal defeats the Kongo Empire at the Battle of Mbwila.

   

  Taj Mahal, completed by 1653 and commissioned by Shah Jahan, one of the Wonders of the World

• 1665–1667: The Second Anglo-Dutch War fought between England and the United Provinces.
• 1666: The Great Fire of London.
• 1667: The Raid on the Medway during the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
• 1667–1668: The War of Devolution: France invades the Netherlands. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) brings this to a halt.
• 1667–1699: The Great Turkish War halts the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Europe.
• 1672–1673: Ottoman campaign to help the Ukrainian Cossacks. John Sobieski defeats the Ottomans at the second battle of Khotyn (1673).
• 1672–1674: The Third Anglo-Dutch War fought between England and the United Provinces
• 1672–1676: Polish–Ottoman War.

   

  French invasion of the Netherlands, which Louis XIV initiated in 1672, starting the Franco-Dutch War

• 1672–1678: Franco-Dutch War.
• 1674: Shivaji forms the Maratha Empire, which lasts until 1818.
• 1676–1681: Russia and the Ottoman Empire commence the Russo-Turkish Wars.
• 1678: The Treaty of Nijmegen ends various interconnected wars among France, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Brandenburg, Sweden, Denmark, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, and the Holy Roman Empire.

   

  Claiming Louisiana for France in 1682

• 1680: The Pueblo Revolt drives the Spanish out of New Mexico until 1692.
• 1682: French explorer Robert La Salle claims all the land east of the Mississippi River.[10]
• 1683: China conquers the Kingdom of Tungning and annexes Taiwan.
• 1683: The Ottoman Empire is defeated in the second Siege of Vienna.
• 1683–1699: The Great Turkish War leads to the conquest of most of Ottoman Hungary by the Habsburgs.
• 1687: Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
• 1688: The Siege of Derry, the first major event in the Williamite War in Ireland.
• 1688: Siamese revolution of 1688 ousted French influence and virtually severed all ties with the West until the 19th century.
• 1688–1689: The Glorious Revolution starts with the Dutch Republic invading England, England becomes a constitutional monarchy.
• 1688–1691: The War of the Two Kings in Ireland.
• 1688–1697: The Grand Alliance sought to stop French expansion during the Nine Years' War.
• 1689: The Battle of Killiecrankie is fought between Jacobite and Williamite forces in Highland Perthshire.
• 1689: The Karposh rebellion is crushed in present-day North Macedonia, Skopje is retaken by the Ottoman Turks. Karposh is killed, and the rebels are defeated.

   

  The Battle of Vienna (1683) marked the historic end of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe

• 1689: Bill of Rights gains royal consent.
• 1689: John Locke publishes Two Treatises of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration.
• 1690: The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland.
• 1692: Port Royal in Jamaica is struck by an earthquake and a tsunami. Approximately 2,000 people die and 2,300 are injured.
• 1692–1694: Famine in France kills two million.[11]
• 1693: The College of William and Mary is founded in Williamsburg, Virginia, by a royal charter.
• 1694: The Bank of England is established.
• 1695: The Mughal Empire nearly bans the East India Company in response to pirate Henry Every's capture of the trading ship Ganj-i-Sawai.
• 1696–1697: Famine in Finland wipes out almost one-third of the population.[12]
• 1697–1699: Grand Embassy of Peter the Great to Western Europe.
• 1699: Thomas Savery demonstrates his first steam engine to the Royal Society.

•  

  Catholic general Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634), supreme commander of the armies of the Imperial Army during the Thirty Years War

•  

  Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587–1629), the founder of Batavia, was an officer of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), holding two terms as its Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies

•  

  René Descartes (1596–1650) with Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689)

•  

  Cardinal Mazarin (1602–1661), who served as the chief minister to the kings of France Louis XIII and Louis XIV

•  

  Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1618–1707), who ruled over almost the entire Indian subcontinent for a period of 49 years

•  

  Shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder of Japan's final shogunate, which lasted well into the 19th century

See also: Timeline of historic inventions § 17th century

Major changes in philosophy and science take place, often characterized as the Scientific revolution.

• Banknotes reintroduced in Europe.
• Ice cream.
• Tea and coffee become popular in Europe.
• Central Banking in France and modern Finance by Scottish economist John Law.
• Minarets, Jamé Mosque of Isfahan, Isfahan, Persia (Iran), are built.
• 1604: Supernova SN 1604 is observed in the Milky Way.
• 1605: Johannes Kepler starts investigating elliptical orbits of planets.
• 1605: Johann Carolus of Germany publishes the 'Relation', the first newspaper.
• 1608: Refracting telescopes first appear. Dutch spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey tries to obtain a patent on one, spreading word of the invention.
• 1610: The Orion Nebula is identified by Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc of France.
• 1610: Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius observe Jupiter's Galilean moons.
• 1611: King James Bible or 'Authorized Version' first published.
• 1612: The first flintlock musket likely created for Louis XIII of France by gunsmith Marin Bourgeois.
• 1614: John Napier introduces the logarithm to simplify calculations.
• 1616: Niccolò Zucchi describes experiments with a bronze parabolic mirror trying to make a reflecting telescope.
• 1620: Cornelis Drebbel, funded by James I of England, builds the first 'submarine' made of wood and greased leather.
• 1623: The first English dictionary, 'English Dictionarie' is published by Henry Cockeram, listing difficult words with definitions.
• 1628: William Harvey publishes and elucidates his earlier discovery of the circulatory system.
• 1637: Dutch Bible published.
• 1637: Teatro San Cassiano, the first public opera house, opened in Venice.
• 1637: Pierre de Fermat formulates his so-called Last Theorem, unsolved until 1995.
• 1637: Although Chinese naval mines were earlier described in the 14th century Huolongjing, the Tian Gong Kai Wu book of Ming dynasty scholar Song Yingxing describes naval mines wrapped in a lacquer bag and ignited by an ambusher pulling a rip cord on the nearby shore that triggers a steel-wheel flint mechanism.
• 1642: Blaise Pascal invents the mechanical calculator called Pascal's calculator.
• 1642: Mezzotint engraving introduces grey tones to printed images.
• 1643: Evangelista Torricelli of Italy invents the mercury barometer.
• 1645: Giacomo Torelli of Venice, Italy invents the first rotating stage.
• 1651: Giovanni Riccioli renames the lunar maria.
• 1656: Christiaan Huygens describes the true shape of the rings of Saturn.
• 1657: Christiaan Huygens develops the first functional pendulum clock based on the learnings of Galileo Galilei.
• 1659: Christiaan Huygens first to observe surface details of Mars.
• 1662: Christopher Merret presents first paper on the production of sparkling wine.
• 1663: James Gregory publishes designs for a reflecting telescope.
• 1669: The first known operational reflecting telescope is built by Isaac Newton.
• 1676: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovers Bacteria.
• 1676: First measurement of the speed of light.
• 1679: Binary system developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
• 1684: Calculus independently developed by both Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Sir Isaac Newton and used to formulate classical mechanics.

1. ^ "The Seventeenth-Century Decline". The Library of Iberian resources online. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
2. ^ Maddison, Angus (2003): Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics, OECD Publishing, ISBN 9264104143, pages 259–261
3. ^ Lex Heerma van Voss; Els Hiemstra-Kuperus; Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (2010). "The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India". The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000. Ashgate Publishing. p. 255. ISBN 9780754664284.
4. ^ "The Thirty-Years-War". Western New England College. Archived from the original on 1999-10-09. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
5. ^ Turchin, Peter (2009). Secular Cycles. Princeton University Press. pp. 256–257. ISBN 9780691136967.
6. ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 28
7. ^ History of UST UST.edu.ph. Retrieved December 21, 2008.
8. ^ "The Tatar Khanate of Crimea". Archived from the original on 2016-03-23. Retrieved 2008-06-05.
9. ^ Rokosz, M. (1995). "History of the Aurochs (Bos taurus primigenius) in Poland" (PDF). Animal Genetics Resources Information. 16: 5–12. doi:10.1017/S1014233900004582. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2013.
10. ^ "René-Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle". Britannica. 30 March 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
11. ^ Alan Macfarlane (1997). The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap. Wiley . p. 64. ISBN 0-631-18117-2
12. ^ Karen J. Cullen (2010). "Famine in Scotland: The 'Ill Years' of the 1690s". Edinburgh University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-7486-3887-3

• Chang, Chun-shu, and Shelley Hsueh-lun Chang. Crisis and Transformation in Seventeenth-Century China" (1998).
• Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free
• Reid, A. J. S. Trade and State Power in 16th & 17th Century Southeast Asia (1977).
• Spence, J. D. The Death of Woman Wang: Rural Life in China in the 17th Century (1978).

• Clark, George. The Seventeenth Century (2nd ed. 1945).
• Hampshire, Stuart. The Age of Reason the 17th Century Philosophers, Selected, with Introduction and Interpretive Commentary (1961).
• Hugon, Cécile (1997) [1911]. "Social Conditions in 17th-Century France (1649-1652)". In Halsall, Paul (ed.). Social France in the XVII Century. London: Methuen. pp. 171–172, 189. ISBN 9780548161944. Archived from the original on 23 August 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
• Lewitter, Lucian Ryszard. "Poland, the Ukraine and Russia in the 17th Century." The Slavonic and East European Review (1948): 157–171. in JSTOR
• Ogg, David. Europe in the Seventeenth Century (6th ed. 1965).
• Rowbotham, Sheila. Hidden from history: Rediscovering women in history from the 17th century to the present (1976).
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh R. "The general crisis of the 17th century." Past & Present 16 (1959): 31–64.

• Vistorica: Timelines of 17th century events, science, culture and persons