DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. It is a special type of communication, in that the messages are concerned with new ideas.
The description for these elements is presented below: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. The degree of relative advantage may be measured in economic terms, but social-prestige factors, convenience and satisfaction are also often the important components. b. Compatibility: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters. c. Complexity: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. In general, new ideas that are simpler to understand will be adopted more rapidly than innovations that require the adopter to develop new skills and understandings. d. Trialability: It is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. An innovation that is trialable represents less uncertainty to the individual who is considering it for adoption, as it is possible to learn by doing. e. Observability: It is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt. 2) Communication channels: The conceptualization of the model of the innovation decision process consist of the following five stages (as illustrated in fig.27.) Fig.27. Paradigm on Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process 1. Knowledge stage: i). Awareness - knowledge motivates an individual to seek "how-to" knowledge and principles knowledge. This type of information - seeking is concentrated as the knowledge stage of the innovation - decision process, but it may also occur at the persuasion and decision stages. 4. Implementation stage: Implementation occurs when an individual (or other decision - making unit) puts an innovation into use. Until the implementation stage, the innovation-decision process has been a strictly mental exercise. But implementation involves overt behaviour change as the new idea is actually part into practice. Problems of implementation are likely to be more serious when the adopter is an organisation rather than an individual. Reason is that in an organisational setting, a number of individuals are usually involved in the innovation - decision process, and the implementers are often a different set of people from the decision makers. 5. Confirmation stage: Confirmation occurs when an individual (or other decision - making unit) seeks reinforcement of an innovation - decision already made, but he or she may reverse this previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation. The confirmation stage continues after the decision to adopt or reject for an indefinite period in time. At this stage, the change agents have the additional responsibility of supporting messages to individuals who have previously adopted. As a sequential effect, there is a possibility for "discontinuance". A discontinuance is a decision to reject an innovation after having previously adopted it. There are two types of discontinuances: i). Replacement discontinuance - is a decision to reject an idea in order to adopt a better idea that supersedes it. ii). Disenchantment discontinuance - is a decision to reject an idea as a result of dissatisfaction with its performance.ADOPTER CATEGORIES There are different categories of farmers. According to Rogers (1971), the farmers based on their innovativeness can be classified as 1. Innovators (Venturesome) 2. Early adopters (Respectable) 3. Early majority (Deliberate) 4. Late majority (Skeptical) Characteristics of farmers All individuals in a social system do not adopt an innovation at the same time. Rather, they adopt in an ordered time sequence, and they may be classified into adopter categories on the basis of when they first begin using a new idea. In technology transfer programme, it is of great practical utility for the extension workers to identify the individuals who are likely to adopt innovations early and who may lag behind. The adoption of an innovation over time follows a normal, bell-shaped curve when plotted over time on frequency basis. If the cumulative number of adopters is plotted, it results in an S-shaped curve. The S-shaped curve rises slowly at first when there are few adopters in a time period, accelerate to a maximum when about half of the individuals in the system have adopted and then increases at a gradually slower rate as the few remaining individuals finally adopt (Fig. 28.). The S-shaped curve is like that of a 'learning curve' as propounded by the psychologists. Each adoption in the social system is in a sense equivalent to a learning trial by an individual. Fig.28. The bell shaped frequency curve and the S-shaped cumulative curve Both of these curves are for the same data, the adoption of an innovation over time by the members of a social system. But the bell-shaped curve shows these data in terms of the number of individuals adopting each year, whereas the S-shaped curve shows these data on cumulative basis. The distribution of adopters over time closely approaches normality, and may be explained by the statistical concept of normal curve. The distribution of the adopters may be partitioned into five adopter categories by using the mean (x) and standard deviation. The area lying to the left of the mean time of adoption minus two standard deviations includes 2.5 per cent of the individuals who are the first to adopt an innovation and are known as innovators. The next 13.5 per cent between the mean minus one standard deviation and the mean minus two standard deviations to adopt the new idea are called as early adopters. The next 34 per cent of the adopters between the mean date of adoption and minus one standard deviation are known as early majority. Between the mean and one standard deviation to the right of the mean are located the next 34 per cent to adopt the new idea, the late majority. The last 16 per cent to the right of mean plus one standard deviation are the last to adopt the innovation the laggards. The five-adopter categories are conceptualized as ideal types and are presented in Figure29. Fig. 29. Adopter categorization on the basis of innovativenessThe innovativeness dimension, as measured by the time at which an individual adopts an innovation, is continuous. However, this variable may be partititioned into five adopter categories by laying of standard deviations from the average time of adoption. The detailed information on the characteristics of adopter categories is presented in the succeeding pages: Characteristics:
Early Adopter: Respectable Early adopters are a more integrated part of the local social system than are innovators. Whereas innovators are cosmopolites, early adopters are localities. This adopter’s category, more than any other, has the greatest degree of opinion leadership in most social systems. Potential adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about the innovation. The early adopter is considered by many as "the man to check with" before using a new idea. This adopter category is generally sought by change agents to be a local missionary for speeding the diffusion process. Because early adopters are not too far ahead of the average individual in innovativeness, they serve as a role model for many other members of a social system. Members of a social system respect the early adopter. The early adopter is respected by his peers. He is the embodiment of successful and discrete use of new ideas. And the early adopter knows that he must continue to earn this esteem of his colleagues if his position in the social structure is to be maintained.
Early Majority: Deliberate (Local Adoption Leaders) The early majority may deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea. Their innovation-decision is relatively longer than that of the innovator and the early adopter. "Be not the last to lay the old aside, nor the first by which the new is tried", might be the motto of the early majority. They follow with deliberate willingness in adopting innovations, but seldom lead.
Late Majority: Skeptical The late majority adopt new ideas just after the average member of a social system. Adoption may be both an economic necessity and the answer to increasing social pressures. Innovations are approached with a skeptical and cautions air, and the late majority do not adopt until most other in their social system have done so. The weight of system norms must definitely favour the innovation before the late majority are convinced. They can be persuaded of the utility of new ideas, but the pressure of peers is necessary to motivate adoption. Characteristics:
Laggards: Traditional Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation. They possess almost no opinion leadership. They are the most localite in their outlook of all adopter categories, many are near isolates. The point of reference for the laggard is the past. Decisions are usually made in terms of what has been done in previous generations. This individual interacts primarily with others who have traditional values. When laggards finally adopt an innovation, it may already have been superseded by another more recent idea which the innovators are already using. Laggards tend to be frankly suspicious of innovations, innovators, and change agents. Their tradition direction slows the innovation decision process to a crawl. Adoption lags far behind knowledge of the idea. Alienation from a too-fast-moving world is apparent in much of the laggard's outlook. While most individuals in a social system are looking to the road of change ahead, the laggards has his attention fixed on the rear-view mirror. Characteristics:
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