1 2 Motivation A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal 3 Early Motivation Theories 4 Theories of Motivation 5 Biological & Psychological Needs 6 Psychological Needs Psychological needs are different from biological needs in two ways: Psychological needs are not necessarily based on deprivation. Psychological needs are learned and not innate like biological needs. People have similar biological needs but different psychological needs. Psychological needs are shaped by culture and learning. Needs lead to drives. Drives are forces that motivate an organism to take action. 7 Instinct Theory Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors. But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors. 8 Instinct Theory Behavior patterns (unlearned) that are genetically transferred from generation to generation are known as instincts. Many animals are born to act in certain ways when confronted with certain situations. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, William James and William McDougall theorized that human beings have instincts that foster survival and social behaviors. However, today psychologists agree that instinct is not the primary or sole motive for behavior. 9 Drive Reduction Theory 10 Drive-Reduction Theory 11 Drive-Reduction Theory 12 Optimum Arousal Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis. 13 Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal. 14 Humanistic Theory According to Humanistic psychologists, instinct and drive-reduction theories are too mechanical and fails to account for all human motivation. According to Humanistic psychologists, people are also motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillment. In fact, according to humanistic psychology, sometimes our drive to fulfill social/personal desires (needs) outweighs our drive to meet basic needs. Abraham Maslow – a humanistic psychologist – suggested that some people are willing to tolerate pain, hunger, and other kinds of tension to achieve their artistic or political or personal goals. 15 Maslow developed his Theory of Hierarchy of Needs 16 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 17 Hunger is both physiological and psychological 18 Physiology of Hunger It comes from our… Brain What part of the brain? 19 Biological Needs: Hunger 20 Hunger Drive Hunger is regulated by biological and psychological factors. The mechanisms involved in the hunger drive include: The mouth The stomach The hypothalamus The act of chewing and swallowing provide certain sensations that help satisfy the hunger drive. The hunger drive is satisfied when the body digests food and the nutrients enter the bloodstream. 21 Hunger The stomach – the growls and contractions of an empty stomach are believed to contribute to the hunger drive. (hunger pangs) The hypothalamus – the level of sugar in the blood and the hypothalamus are key factors on feelings of hunger. Glucose – a form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissue. * Low blood glucose levels cause increases in hunger. 22 Ventromedial Hypothalamus 23 Set Point Theory The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat. 24 Body Chemistry Glucose The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat. 25 Psychological Influences: 26 Taste Preferences Food taste better and we chew less when we are hungry (beginning of a meal). Food tastes worse and we chew more when we are not hungry (at the end of the meal). It’s weird; the better the food tastes, the less time we leave it in our mouths. 27 Eating Disorders: Obesity 28 Causes of Obesity Like with hunger drive, both biological and psychological factors influence or contribute to obesity. Nature vs. Nurture: some research suggests that obesity is not hereditary. Example: obese parents may simply encourage their children to overeat and eat fatty foods – social learning. And other research suggests that it is based on heredity. Example: Adopted children more closely resemble their biological parents, regardless of adoptive parents. 29 Heredity & Obesity A particular gene may cause them to not receive the signal in the hypothalamus to stop eating. Also, genes determine the number of fat cells a person has. People with more fat cells feel hungry sooner than people with fewer fat cells even if they are the same weight. People metabolize food at different rates, according to the amount of muscle and fat in their bodies. Men tend to have less body fat than women. Men tend to have more muscle than women. 30 Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa 31 Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa 32 How do we (as scientists) find out about sex? 33 Kinsey’s Studies Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s). Most men and half of all women have premarital sex. Almost all men and women masturbate. Women who had orgasms while masturbating were more likely to report having orgasms after marriage. Good Start- but major problems with his study- sampling, questions etc…. 34 The Physiology of Sex In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex. 382 females and 312 males. Only people who were willing to have sex and display orgasm in a lab environment. Filmed more than 10,000 sex cycles. After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight. 35 The Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages) 36 Results of M & J Study (Continued) 37 Sex Drive Increased production of testosterone and estrogen at puberty is responsible for physical differentiation Increased secretion of DHEA, primary adrenal sex hormone, is responsible for sexual feelings Final maturation of ovaries in females of testes in males First sexual attraction in both sexes Keywords: testosterone, estrogen, DHEA, sex drive 38 Male Sex Drive Testosterone maintains sex drive in adult males 39 Female Sex Drive Estrous cycle controls drive in nonhuman mammals 40 Early Effects of Testosterone 41 The Psychology of Sex Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger- but we are all externals when it comes to sex. Heiman 4 tape study. People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing- but they are none the less biologically arousing. 42 Can External Sexual Stimuli have adverse effects? 43 Imagined Stimuli Images inside our heads can also effect our sexual motivation. Both dreams and daydreams can lead to orgasm. But fantasies to not correspond to reality- just because a women fantasizes about a man “taking her” does not mean she will want it in reality!!!! 44 Adolescent Sexuality Culture 45 Only about 1/3 of sexually active male teenagers use condoms- WHY? 46 We have discussed the energizing of sexual motivation but have yet to discuss its direction: 47 Human Sexual Orientation 48 The Brain Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men. However, the cluster could be socially developed or some other biological factor. 49 Genetics What does this mean? 50 Prenatal Environment Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment. We have been able to create lesbian sheep and homosexual male fruit flies !!! 51 Achievement Motivation 52 Achievement Motivation 53 Achievement Motivation 54 Why are some people highly motivated, while others are not? 55 Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work 56 Cultivating Intrinsic Motivation 57 Industrial and Organizational Psychology 58 Leadership Style Task Leadership: goal oriented leadership that sets standards and organizes work. Social Leadership: group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support . 59 Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators. 60 When Motives Conflict approach-approach conflict |