What do we call a need or desire that energizes behavior?

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2 Motivation A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal

3 Early Motivation Theories
Motivation is based on our instincts: A behavior that is patterned throughout a species and is UNLEARNED

4 Theories of Motivation
A motive is a stimulus that moves a person to behave in ways designed to accomplish a specific goal. Motives are theoretical, psychological states because they can not be observed or measured directly. It is assumed that a person or organism is “motivated” when the person or organism is observed trying to reach its goals. When psychologists talk about motives, they are also talking about needs. A need is a condition in which we require something we do not have or lack.

5 Biological & Psychological Needs
People have both psychological and biological needs. Biological needs are needed to survive. Example: oxygen and water Psychological needs, on the other hand, are not necessarily needed for survival. However, they are important for a more fulfilling life. Psychological needs motivate people to accomplish certain goals. Example: achievement, self-esteem, a sense of belonging, social approval, etc.

6 Psychological Needs Psychological needs are different from biological needs in two ways: Psychological needs are not necessarily based on deprivation. Psychological needs are learned and not innate like biological needs. People have similar biological needs but different psychological needs. Psychological needs are shaped by culture and learning. Needs lead to drives. Drives are forces that motivate an organism to take action.

7 Instinct Theory Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors. But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors.

8 Instinct Theory Behavior patterns (unlearned) that are genetically transferred from generation to generation are known as instincts. Many animals are born to act in certain ways when confronted with certain situations. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, William James and William McDougall theorized that human beings have instincts that foster survival and social behaviors. However, today psychologists agree that instinct is not the primary or sole motive for behavior.

9 Drive Reduction Theory
Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS. Drive-reduction theory: a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need Clark Hull, psychologist, developed the drive-reduction theory in the 1930s. An organism learns to do whatever will reduce that tension by reducing the drive. Example: eating reduces the hunger drive Primary versus Secondary drives

10 Drive-Reduction Theory
Basic biological drives motivate humans to restore an internal state of equilibrium or balance. This tendency to maintain this state of equilibrium is called homeostasis. FOR EXAMPLE: When a person is hungry, he/she will eat until they are satisfied and no longer hungry. How do we explain when someone eats even when they are not hungry? Some people often act to increase rather than decrease the tension they experience. Drive-Reduction theory does not explain all human motivation.

11 Drive-Reduction Theory
We are not only pushed by our internal needs but.… Pulled by our incentives (external): a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

12 Optimum Arousal Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis.
Sometimes we seek arousal. Our needs go beyond reducing drives.

13 Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal.
Degree of arousal Quality of performance Very difficult task Moderately difficult task Easy task We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal. Yerkes-Dodson Law High arousal is helpful on easy tasks Too much arousal is harmful As level of arousal increases, quality of performance decreases with task difficulty

14 Humanistic Theory According to Humanistic psychologists, instinct and drive-reduction theories are too mechanical and fails to account for all human motivation. According to Humanistic psychologists, people are also motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillment. In fact, according to humanistic psychology, sometimes our drive to fulfill social/personal desires (needs) outweighs our drive to meet basic needs. Abraham Maslow – a humanistic psychologist – suggested that some people are willing to tolerate pain, hunger, and other kinds of tension to achieve their artistic or political or personal goals.

15 Maslow developed his Theory of Hierarchy of Needs
He suggested that people strive to fulfill their capacity for self-actualization. Self-actualization refers to the need to become what one believes he/she is capable of being. This takes a person past the simple point of satisfying physical needs. Maslow thought that striving to become something or to do something meaningful in one’s life is essential for humans.

16 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.

17 Hunger is both physiological and psychological
Motivation of HUNGER Hunger is both physiological and psychological

18 Physiology of Hunger It comes from our… Brain What part of the brain?
Washburn’s studies showed hunger was partially related to the stomach. But those with their stomachs removed still feel hunger. Why? Hunger does NOT come from our stomach. It comes from our… Brain What part of the brain? The Hypothalamus

19 Biological Needs: Hunger
Biological needs are based mainly on body tissue needs, such as need for food, water, air, temperature regulation, and pain avoidance. Biological needs are complex because they usually involve psychological needs as well. Food is necessary for survival, but it could also mean much more than mere survival. For example: Food can symbolize the closeness of the family.

20 Hunger Drive Hunger is regulated by biological and psychological factors. The mechanisms involved in the hunger drive include: The mouth The stomach The hypothalamus The act of chewing and swallowing provide certain sensations that help satisfy the hunger drive. The hunger drive is satisfied when the body digests food and the nutrients enter the bloodstream.

21 Hunger The stomach – the growls and contractions of an empty stomach are believed to contribute to the hunger drive. (hunger pangs) The hypothalamus – the level of sugar in the blood and the hypothalamus are key factors on feelings of hunger. Glucose – a form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissue. * Low blood glucose levels cause increases in hunger.

22 Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus Ventromedial Hypothalamus controls the “start eating” sensation When stimulated it makes you hungry. When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again. part of the brain that controls the “stop eating” sensation When stimulated you feel full. When lesioned you will never feel full again.

23 Set Point Theory The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat.
Wants to maintain a stable weight. Activate the lateral when you diet and activate the ventromedial when you start to gain weight. Leptin theory (protein produced by bloated fat cells)

24 Body Chemistry Glucose The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat.
When glucose levels drop- hunger increases.

25 Psychological Influences:
Externals: People whose eating is triggered more by the presence/smell of food or by the presence of other people eating than internal factors. Internals: People who are motivated to eat by internal cues, empty stomach, or feelings of hunger. People eat when they are upset or depressed. They have learned that eating certain foods and amounts brings them a sensation of relaxation/comfort.

26 Taste Preferences Food taste better and we chew less when we are hungry (beginning of a meal). Food tastes worse and we chew more when we are not hungry (at the end of the meal). It’s weird; the better the food tastes, the less time we leave it in our mouths.

27 Eating Disorders: Obesity
One in two American adults are obese. Obesity is defined as weighing more than 30 percent above one’s recommended weight. Obesity has both physical and social consequences. Studies have shown that obese people are more likely than non-obese people to come down with illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, gout, respiratory problems, and some cancers.

28 Causes of Obesity Like with hunger drive, both biological and psychological factors influence or contribute to obesity. Nature vs. Nurture: some research suggests that obesity is not hereditary. Example: obese parents may simply encourage their children to overeat and eat fatty foods – social learning. And other research suggests that it is based on heredity. Example: Adopted children more closely resemble their biological parents, regardless of adoptive parents.

29 Heredity & Obesity A particular gene may cause them to not receive the signal in the hypothalamus to stop eating. Also, genes determine the number of fat cells a person has. People with more fat cells feel hungry sooner than people with fewer fat cells even if they are the same weight. People metabolize food at different rates, according to the amount of muscle and fat in their bodies. Men tend to have less body fat than women. Men tend to have more muscle than women.

30 Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder in which a normal weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

31 Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

32 How do we (as scientists) find out about sex?
Sex Is Natural We are all motivated to have sex. Without that motivation, none of us would be here. How do we (as scientists) find out about sex? We ask!!!!

33 Kinsey’s Studies Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s). Most men and half of all women have premarital sex. Almost all men and women masturbate. Women who had orgasms while masturbating were more likely to report having orgasms after marriage. Good Start- but major problems with his study- sampling, questions etc….

34 The Physiology of Sex In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex. 382 females and 312 males. Only people who were willing to have sex and display orgasm in a lab environment. Filmed more than 10,000 sex cycles. After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

35 The Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages)
Results of M & J Study The Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages) Excitement Phase: genitals become engorged in blood (men and women) and women will lubricate. Plateau Phase: excitement peaks, breathing, pulse increases, tip of penis may exhibit seminal fluid, clitoris retracts- orgasm feels imminent.

36 Results of M & J Study (Continued)
Orgasm: muscle contractions all over the body, women’s contractions actually help propel sperm and position uterus to increase chances of conception. Man and woman only aware of rhythmic genital contractions. Resolution Phase: everything slows down and men enter a refractory period (which can last from minutes to over a day) where he is incapable of another orgasm.

37 Sex Drive Increased production of testosterone and estrogen at puberty is responsible for physical differentiation Increased secretion of DHEA, primary adrenal sex hormone, is responsible for sexual feelings Final maturation of ovaries in females of testes in males First sexual attraction in both sexes Keywords: testosterone, estrogen, DHEA, sex drive

38 Male Sex Drive Testosterone maintains sex drive in adult males
castration decreases drive testosterone injections or implantation to medial preoptic area restores drive Keywords: testosterone, medial preoptic area

39 Female Sex Drive Estrous cycle controls drive in nonhuman mammals
removal of ovaries abolishes drive, while hormone injections restore it Also, lesions to ventromedial area abolish drive, while injection or implantation restores drive Keywords: estrous cycle, ventromedial area

40 Early Effects of Testosterone
Presence of testosterone during critical period will cause rudimentary genitals of fetus to develop into male structures Testosterone acts in brain to promote development of neural systems for male sex drive and inhibit systems for female drive Absence causes development of female structures Stressful events experienced by pregnant rats reduce level of prenatal testosterone Keywords: testosterone

41 The Psychology of Sex Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger- but we are all externals when it comes to sex. Heiman 4 tape study. People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing- but they are none the less biologically arousing.

42 Can External Sexual Stimuli have adverse effects?
Movies of women being coerced or forced into sex tend to increase the viewer’s acceptance of the false idea that women can enjoy it. Viewing X-Rated films can diminish people’s satisfaction with their own partners. Expectations change. After viewing attractive women or men on TV- people judge their own partners as less attractive.

43 Imagined Stimuli Images inside our heads can also effect our sexual motivation. Both dreams and daydreams can lead to orgasm. But fantasies to not correspond to reality- just because a women fantasizes about a man “taking her” does not mean she will want it in reality!!!!

44 Adolescent Sexuality Culture
About ½ of all high school kids in US report having sex- rates are higher in Western Europe but lower in Arab or Asian countries. Also change over time in the same culture: in % of women reported having sex by 18. Now that number is around half.

45 Only about 1/3 of sexually active male teenagers use condoms- WHY?
Ignorance Guilt around sex No Communication Alcohol Use Mass Media norms of unprotected promiscuity

46 We have discussed the energizing of sexual motivation but have yet to discuss its direction:
Sexual Orientation An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender. Percentage gay, how it feels, cities, brothers.

47 Human Sexual Orientation
Orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained aspect of the self that probably does not change No consistent relationship between orientation and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual experience) Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by heterosexual parents. Controversial findings suggest a possible relationship among prenatal stress, androgens, and the development of brain systems that play a role in sexual attraction Keywords: sexual orientation

48 The Brain Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men. However, the cluster could be socially developed or some other biological factor.

49 Genetics What does this mean?
If one identical twin is homosexual, the other twin has about a 50% chance of being gay (about 20% for fraternal twins). What does this mean?

50 Prenatal Environment Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment. We have been able to create lesbian sheep and homosexual male fruit flies !!!

51 Achievement Motivation
A desire for significant accomplishments; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

52 Achievement Motivation
People who have LOW achievement motivation prefer very easy or very difficult tasks. People with HIGH achievement motivation prefer moderately difficult tasks. Failure is unlikely to be embarrassing Success is attainable yet attributable to their skill and effort.

53 Achievement Motivation
Does high achievement motivation mean success in life?

54 Why are some people highly motivated, while others are not?
There are emotional and cognitive roots. Children learn to associate achievement with positive emotions. Children learn to associate achievement with expectations (intrinsic or extrinsic). These structures are usually set in place by parents and teachers. Nature OR Nurture?

55 Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work
Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work? (School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..) Intrinsic Motivators Extrinsic Motivators Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..) Work great in the short run.

56 Cultivating Intrinsic Motivation

57 Industrial and Organizational Psychology
A subfield in psychology that focuses on how to help organizations recruit, select, compensate and train employees. The object is to utilize the human factor in an organization to increase productivity.

58 Leadership Style Task Leadership: goal oriented leadership that sets standards and organizes work. Social Leadership: group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support .

59 Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory X Theory Y Managers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment. Think employees are Extrinsically Motivated. Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs. Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive. Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

60 When Motives Conflict approach-approach conflict
avoidance-avoidance conflict approach-avoidance conflict Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts