What are the similarities and differences between social learning theory and social cognitive theory SCT )?

What is Social Cognitive Theory?

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is an interpersonal level theory developed by Albert Bandura that emphasizes the dynamic interaction between people (personal factors), their behavior, and their environments.

This interaction is demonstrated by the construct called Reciprocal Determinism. As seen in the figure below, personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior continuously interact through influencing and being influenced by each other.

How to use Reciprocal Determinism: Consider multiple ways to change behavior; for example, targeting both knowledge and attitudes, and also making a change in the environment.

Outcome Expectations

• Definition: Beliefs about the likelihood and value of the consequences of behavioral choices.
• Example: A study designed to determine the extent to which positive outcome expectations and self-efficacy influence disclosure of HIV seropositivity to sexual partners examined these outcome expectations:
  • I believe my partner(s) will reject me if I tell him/her that I am HIV-positive.
  • I believe that my partner(s) will not trust me if I tell him/her that I am HIV-positive.
  • I fear being rejected by my sex partner(s) if I tell him/her that I am HIV positive.

  Response was indicated on a 4-point scale: 4 = strongly agree, 3 = somewhat agree, 2 = somewhat disagree, 1 = strongly disagree.

• How to use it: Demonstrate positive outcomes of performing a desired behavior.

For more information: Semple SJ, Patterson TL, Shaw WS, Pedlow CT, Grant I. Disclosure of HIV seropositivity to sexual partners: an application of Social Cognitive Theory.Behavior Therapy 1999; 30, 223-237.

Self-Efficacy

• Definition: Confidence or belief in one's ability to perform a given behavior. Self-efficacy is task-specific, meaning that self-efficacy can increase or decrease based on the specific task at hand, even in related areas.
• Example: A study designed to determine the extent to which positive outcome expectations and self-efficacy influenced disclosure of HIV seropositivity to sexual partners examined these aspects of self-efficacy [1]:
  • I can bring up the topic of my HIV-positive serostatus with any sexual partner.
  • I can disclose my HIV-positive serostatus to all partners before we engage in sex.
  • I can handle any sexual partner's reaction to my HIV-positive serostatus disclosure.

  Response was indicated on a 4-point scale: 4 = strongly agree, 3 = somewhat agree, 2 = somewhat disagree, 1 = strongly disagree.

• How to use it: Break down behavior change into small, measurable steps. Allow intervention participants to recognize and celebrate small successes along the path to larger behavior change.

For more information: Semple SJ, Patterson TL, Shaw WS, Pedlow CT, Grant I. Disclosure of HIV seropositivity to sexual partners: An application of Social Cognitive Theory. Behavior Therapy 1999; 30, 223-237.

Collective Efficacy

• Definition: Confidence or belief in a group's ability to perform actions to bring about desired change. Collective efficacy is also the willingness of community members to intervene in order to help others.
• Example: A study designed to determine the relationship between neighborhood-level collective efficacy and BMI in youth examined the degree to which respondents felt their neighborhood had the following:
  • Adults that kids look up to.
  • People willing to help neighbors.
  • Adults who watch out that kids are safe.
  • People in the neighborhood who share the same values.
  • A close-knit community.
  • Adults who would do something if a kid did graffiti.
  • Adults who would scold a kid if showing disrespect.
• How to use it: Bring people together and mobilize them to action. Develop group activities that allow individuals to get to know each other better and increase confidence to accomplish the desired behavior change.

For more information: Cohen DA, Finch BK, Bower A, Sastry N. Collective efficacy and obesity: The potential influence of social factors on health. Social Science & Medicine 2006; 62, 769-778.

Self-Regulation

• Definition: Controlling oneself through self-monitoring, goal-setting, feedback, self-reward, self-instruction, and enlistment of social support.
• Example: A study designed to explain "leisure time" physical exercise among high school students measured self-regulation in five domains:
  • goal-setting
  • self-monitoring
  • gaining and maintaining social support
  • planning to overcome barriers
  • securing reinforcements
• How to use it: Build in goal-setting activities throughout the intervention. Work with participants to create realistic and measurable goals. Also allow time for reflection and evaluation about success or failure in meeting goals.

For more information: Winters E, Petosa R, Charleton T. Using Social Cognitive Theory to explain discretionary "Leisure-time" physical exercise among high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health 2003; 32:436-442.

Facilitation/Behavioral Capability

• Definition: Providing tools, resources, or environmental changes that make new behaviors easier to perform.
• Example: The Minnesota Smoking Prevention Program evaluated sixth grade students' behavioral capability to resist positive images of smoking. This was more clearly defined as one's ability to identify, evaluate the truthfulness, and reject favorable images of smoking presented through media and adult modeling.
• How to use it: Provide both knowledge-based training and skill-based training to intervention participants.

For more information: Langlois M, Petosa R, Hallam J. Why do effective smoking prevention programs work? Student changes in social cognitive theory constructs. Journal of School Health 1999; 69(8), 326-331.

Observational Learning

• Definition: Beliefs based on observing similar individuals or role models perform a new behavior.
• Example: A church-based intervention, designed to increase physical activity and healthy eating behaviors, ensured that the church's minister participated in walking clubs. He was seen as a role model for other participants, because he grew up in the community and was now a well-known leader. His involvement with the program was key to encouraging church members to change their behavior.
• How to use it: Provide credible role models who reflect the target population and perform the desired behavior.

For more information: Winett RA, Anderson ES, Whiteley JA, Wojcik JR, Rovniak LS, Graves KD, Galper DI, Winett SG. Church-based health behavior programs: Using Social Cognitive Theory to formulate interventions for at-risk populations. Applied & Preventive Psychology 1999; 8:129-142.

Incentive Motivation

• Definition: The use and misuse of rewards and punishments to modify behavior.
• Example: As part of efforts to increase mammography screening rates, a number of studies/programs have offered cash prizes, small gifts, as well as coupons for food in exchange for attendance at screening visits.
• How to use it: Determine what kind of incentives would motivate participants to participate in the intervention. Offer options, as not all participants may be motivated by the same incentives

For more information: Kane RL, Johnson PE, Town RJ, Butler M. A Structured Review of the Effect of Economic Incentives on Consumers'Preventive Behavior. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2004; 27:4, 327-352.

Moral Disengagement

• Definition: Ways of thinking about harmful behaviors and the people who are harmed that make infliction of suffering acceptable by disengaging self-regulatory moral standards.
• Example: Terrorism is an example of destructive conduct which has been made personally and socially acceptable by the terrorist who portrays their actions as serving a moral purpose. This self-framing then allows the individual to act on a moral imperative [7].
• How to use it: Re-engage self-regulatory moral standards by illuminating possible dehumanization and diffusion of responsibility onto others.

For more information: Bandura, A. (1990). Mechanisms of moral disengagement. In W. Reich (Ed.), Origins of terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind (pp. 161-191). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement.   SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors.   If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience.   While expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

Limitation of Social Cognitive Theory

There are several limitations of SCT, which should be considered when using this theory in public health. Limitations of the model include the following:

• The theory assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes in the person, when this may not always be true.
• The theory is loosely organized, based solely on the dynamic interplay between person, behavior, and environment. It is unclear the extent to which each of these factors into actual behavior and if one is more influential than another.
• The theory heavily focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards biological and hormonal predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations.
• The theory does not focus on emotion or motivation, other than through reference to past experience. There is minimal attention on these factors.
• The theory can be broad-reaching, so can be difficult to operationalize in entirety.

Social Cognitive Theory considers many levels of the social ecological model in addressing behavior change of individuals. SCT has been widely used in health promotion given the emphasis on the individual and the environment, the latter of which has become a major point of focus in recent years for health promotion activities. As with other theories, applicability of all the constructs of SCT to one public health problem may be difficult especially in developing focused public health programs.