After reducing postdecision dissonance, people are more likely to rate the chosen and unchosen alternatives as _________

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2. According to the authors of your text, one of the most powerful determinants of human behavior stems from our need toa. acquire as much social power as possible.b. forge strong connections with other people.c. preserve and maintain a relatively favorable view of ourselves.d. behave in rational, logical, reasonable ways.
When people act contrary to their self-perceptions as reasonable and sensible people, they experience a feeling known as ________.a. defensive attributionb. low self-esteemc. affective ambivalenced. cognitive dissonance
5. George thinks of himself as an honest person until his brother reminds him that he’s been known to keep extra change given to him by a cashier and to stock his home office for a sideline business with supplies taken from his job. George is now probably feeling a sense of discomfort known asa. misattribution of arousal.b. self-serving bias.c. cognitive dissonance.d. anxiety.
Cognitive dissonance alwaysa. leads to a change in behavior.b. produces discomfort.c. leads to the rationalization trap.d. makes people produce new cognitions.
Of the following, how are individuals most likely to reduce cognitive dissonance?a. By pretending they did not perform a particular behavior.b. By reducing their total number of cognitions.c. By adding new cognitions that are consistent with their behavior.d. By decreasing their arousal.
The most typical ways of reducing dissonance include all of the following EXCEPT ¬¬¬¬¬a. forgetting about our past statements that contradict our behavior.b. changing our behavior to bring it into line with dissonant cognitions.c. justifying our behavior by changing dissonant cognitions.d. justifying our behavior by adding new cognitions.
A tobacco grower says, “I’m not the only one growing it. If I stop, someone else will be there.” Assuming that the man was experiencing dissonance from the fact that he was making his living from a crop that is bad for people’s health, he appears to be reducing this dissonance bya. changing his behavior.b. changing his cognitions.c. adding new cognitions.d. self-affirmation in an unrelated domain.
Talia loves animals but still eats meat. When she experiences dissonance about the contradiction, she tells herself that she also volunteers her time at an animal shelter. This manner of reducing dissonance involvesa. self-affirmation.b. priming.c. self-handicapping.d. growth mindset.
15. Emile just ditched a friend at a party to spend time with a pretty woman. Emile feels uncomfortable but he tells himself it’s because the woman is so hot and not because he treated his friend badly. The way he’s feeling is dissonance, but he tells himself it’s sexual attraction. This describes which of the following?a. self-affirmationb. self-esteemc. misattribution of arousald. priming
17.Scott believes very strongly that saccharine is an unsafe sugar substitute that may even cause cancer. Even though Scott is diabetic, and thus should be using sugar substitutes, he often opts for sugar-laden foods and drinks to avoid saccharine. “I’ll just exercise more later; the sugar isn’t a big deal. I’m really being healthier by avoiding saccharine,” he thinks to himself. Scott’s behavior and thoughts are examples of ________ in the face of cognitive dissonance.a. harmonizingb. rationalizingc. patronizingd. denial
The authors of your text explain that people tend to overestimate how bad they will feel if a negative event were to happen to them. This tendency is called a. the rationalization trap.b. cognitive dissonance.c. self-affirmation.d. the impact bias.
Rudy thinks that if he ever got kicked off the football team he would be depressed for months, and that his life would lose all meaning. In actuality, his response would probably not be this severe or prolonged. What is Rudy demonstrating?a. the impact biasb. self-affirmationc. lowballingd. effort justification
People tend to fall subject to the impact bias (and not understand that they will usually successfully reduce cognitive dissonance) because reducing cognitive dissonance isa. a painful process.b. controlled and conscious.c. largely unconscious.d. quick and effortful.
Jay just found out that he was not accepted into his dream college. Based on information from the authors of your text about impact bias, which of the following best reflects how Jay will react?a. He will become severely depressed.b. He will not go to college at all unless he can get admitted into his dream school.c. He will get over it rather quickly.d. It actually will not bother him in the least.
Imagine you really enjoy lying out in the sun to get a deep, dark tan. If you heard arguments both for and against tanning, you would probably remember ________ arguments for tanning, and ________ arguments against tanning.a. long; shortb. short; longc. plausible; implausibled. implausible; plausible
In a classic experiment, researchers (Aronson & Mettee, 1968) gave positive false feedback to some students, negative false feedback to some students, and no feedback to others. They were interested in seeing whether a boost to self-esteem would affect the likelihood of cheating. In this experiment, what is the independent variable?a. type of feedbackb. cheatingc. self-esteemd. the students
In a classic experiment, researchers (Aronson & Mettee, 1968) gave positive false feedback to some students, negative false feedback to some students, and no feedback to others. They were interested in seeing how self-esteem would affect the likelihood of cheating. What was the result of their experiment?a. Students who had gotten the positive feedback were most likely to cheat.b. Students who had gotten the negative feedback were most likely to cheat.c. Students who had gotten no feedback were least most to cheat.d. Students who had gotten the negative and no feedback were most likely to cheat.
Social psychologists had African American students do carefully constructed self-affirming writing assignments regarding their good qualities outside of school. If this approach was to work for you with a group of students who were in danger of being academically dismissed, how would it affect them?a. They would have higher self-esteem but no improvement to academic performance.b. They would have higher self-esteem and improvement in their academic performance.c. They would have lower self-esteem but no improvement to academic performance.d. They would have lower self-esteem and improvement in their academic performance.
Social psychologists had African American students do carefully constructed self-affirming writing assignments regarding their good qualities outside of school. This type of self-affirmation will not be effective in bolstering self-esteem unlessa. it is overly inflated.b. it is overly positive and untrue.c. it is overly negative and untrue.d. it is realistic.
According to the authors of your text, people experience dissonancea. every time they make a decision.b. when they know they did the wrong thing.c. when their goals do not match what society expects of them.d. when they make biased decisions.
According to the authors, every time we make a decision, we experience some amount of dissonance. Why?a. After people invest effort, they are motivated to second-guess themselves.b. The rejected alternative is seldom completely positive.c. The chosen alternative is seldom completely positive.d. People seldom seek out objective information before decision-making.
Chloe debated for a long time about whether to take a psychology or a sociology course, both of which looked interesting. She finally chose the psychology course. Now, because she is experiencing ________, she raves about the psychology course to her friends.a. insufficient justificationb. postdecision dissonancec. a justification of effortd. a threat to self-evaluation maintenance
Someone reminds you to be appropriately grateful for the gifts you receive. Were a dissonance theorist to remind you to be thankful, he or she would be giving you advice on how toa. avoid cognitive dissonance. b. avoid things that might be costly.c. prevent consonance in your cognitions. d. prevent insufficient justification.
Recall that Brehm (1956) asked women to rate the desirability of a number of appliances and then allowed them to choose one of those appliances as a gift. Twenty minutes later, all women re-rated the same appliances, including the one they chose. Women tended to rate the alternatives they rejected lower than they had originally, and to rate their chosen appliance more positively. These results suggest that peoplea. seldom collect enough information before making decisions.b. reduce dissonance by overestimating differences between chosen and unchosen alternatives.c. are more likely to experience cognitive dissonance when decisions are irrevocable.d. experience more dissonance when their decisions implicate their self-concepts as rational and reasonable.
Maria is on a limited budget, and can only afford one album. She really likes two in particular: Frank Sinatra’s Greatest Hits and the soundtrack from the musical Wicked. When she gets to listen to the Frank Sinatra album, she cannot imagine why she ever considered the Wicked album. This is becausea. Maria has to justify buying an album, given her limited budget.b. Frank Sinatra music reminds Maria of her childhood.c. Maria was motivated to reduce her postdecision dissonance.d. Maria wasn’t sure about the online store’s return policy.
Anita spent two months trying to decide whether to buy a PC or a Mac. She finally decided on a Mac. Now, Anita most likelya. wishes she’d bought the PC.b. is certain she made the right decision.c. still thinks PCs and Macs are equally good computers.d. tries to convince all her friends to buy PCs.
After reducing postdecision dissonance, people are more likely to rate the chosen and unchosen alternatives asa. being very similar, with about equal strengths and weaknesses.b. having an equal number of strengths, but the chosen alternative as having fewer weaknesses.c. being more dissimilar, such that the chosen alternative is much more desirable than the unchosen one.d. being similar in terms of weaknesses, but the chosen alternative has more strengths.
All things being equal, it would generate the most dissonance to decide which of twoa. classes to take.b. computers to buy.c. apartments to rent.d. people to marry.
Researchers (Knox & Inkster, 1968) visited a race track and interviewed people betting on the horses, both before and after they had placed their bets. They found that people who ________ were more confident in their betting decisions because ________.a. had already placed their bets; their bets changed the oddsb. had already placed their bets; they couldn’t change their mindsc. had placed small, two-dollar bets; they stood to lose lessd. were waiting to place large bets; they reported more experience
After filing your ballot for an election, you are more convinced than you were before filing the ballot that you voted for the best candidate. This example illustrates the idea that when decisions are _______, individuals engage in a greater amount of dissonance reduction.a. imminentb. ambiguousc. irrevocabled. simple
According to research presented in the text, students shot a roll of film and printed two photographs. Some were told that they could exchange the one they chose to keep within five days, but others were told that their choice was final. Which group of students liked their photograph best?a. Those who were given the exchange period, because in the U.S., students value choice.b. Those who were not given an exchange period, because the decision was irrevocable.c. They both liked their photos equally well.d. Those who could exchange the photo, because they could copy the first, then get the second as well.
According to research presented in the text, students shot a roll of film and printed two photographs. Some were told that they could exchange the one they chose to keep within five days, but others were told that their choice was final. What was the dependent variable of this experiment?a. condition: choice or no choiceb. condition: photograph 1 or photograph 2c. how much they liked the photosd. the five day exchange period
Of the four people presented below, which one would feel the LEAST regret about altering her appearance, based on information in your text about cognitive dissonance?a. Cheryl, who just got a tattoob. Lisa, who is wearing a new outfitc. Misty, who just got her nails paintedd. Darlene, who is wearing a new shade of lipstick
Carla has just written out a check for $18,999 to pay for her new car. Although the salesperson had initially accepted her check, she is now told that there was a mistake and that the final total should really be $19,250. Carla writes another check to cover the difference so that she can drive out with her new car. Carla has just fallen prey to a questionable sales practice calleda. “lowballing.”b. “bait-and-switch.”c. the “dissonance game.”d. “keep ‘em guessing.”
When unscrupulous salespeople use lowballing as a means of selling cars, they take advantage of buyers’ illusions that their decision to buy a particular car wasa. freely chosen.b. irrevocable.c. easy to make.d. coerced.
Lisa is a car salesperson. She has just gotten you to agree to a deal on a new car and to write out a check for the down payment. She takes this to her manager and comes back a while later saying that, because of taxes and fees, the price of the car will actually come out to $600 over what you agreed upon. According to the research on lowballing, which of the following is most likely to occur?a. You would decide to buy the car anyway because you realize the decision is reversible.b. You would decide to buy the car only if you are not excited by the anticipation of the event.c. You would decide to buy the car anyway because there is an illusion of irrevocability (i.e., you don’t feel that you can reverse your decision).d. You would not buy the car because salespeople are generally ineffective at persuading buyers to do what they want.
Mariah has had a hard semester, and her grades have suffered. She really needs a good grade in psychology to get off academic probation and stay in school. On the next psychology exam, Mariah is sorely tempted to cheat, but she decides not to. Which of the following pairs of cognitions best reflects the source of any dissonance Mariah might experience while deciding not to cheat?a. “My school life could be over”; “I just gave up a chance to help myself.”b. “I’m basically a decent, honest person”; “These exam questions are ambiguous and tricky.”c. “I’m a basically an honest person”; “I’ve never seen any of my friends cheat.”d. “So much is riding on this exam”; “I just know that if I try it, I’ll get caught.”
Imagine that before a test, the professor told Jake that if he is caught cheating, he will be expelled. Imagine that the professor told Amanda that, if caught cheating, her only punishment will be to write a short paper about why cheating is wrong. If both students don’t cheat, what would dissonance theory predict?a. Amanda will feel more honest than Jake will.b. Jake will feel more honest than Amanda will.c. Amanda and Jake will each feel as honest as the other. d. Neither Jake nor Amanda will feel honest because they were both threatened.
According to results of dissonance studies, who is more likely to believe that lying is truly a heinous, unconscionable, and unforgivable act?a. Mark, who was tempted to lie, but told the truth insteadb. Dan, who has always told the truthc. Bill, who lies quite oftend. Julius, who knew he should tell the truth, but lied instead
Your text describes several situations in which a person may decide to behave immorally, a behavior which is likely to arouse a fair amount of cognitive dissonance. How are people most likely to reduce this dissonance stemming from an immoral act such as lying or cheating?a. change the behavior and act morallyb. add cognitionsc. change their attitude about the immoral behaviord. bolster their decision through downward social comparison
According to the authors of your text, when people are tempted to behave immorally and they choose to be either moral or immoral in that situation, how do they justify their actions?a. They actually change their attitudes to concur with their actions.b. They merely rationalize their actions, and retain their attitudes.c. They add cognitions to reduce the dissonance.d. They become less satisfied with their behaviors.
Mills (1958) had elementary school children compete for attractive prizes. The children could cheat to win the prizes, but they didn’t know that the experimenter would be assured of detecting the cheaters. Some children cheated, and others did not. The next day, a. none of the students endorsed cheating as acceptable.b. those who had cheated earlier became more lenient in their attitudes about cheating.c. those who didn’t cheat earlier became more lenient in their attitudes about cheating.d. when they were offered a large inducement to cheat, most students cheated.
The authors of your text present a study in which monkeys were given a choice between different colors of M&Ms—later, their preference for different colors of M&Ms was reassessed. The researchers found that the monkeysa. couldn’t remember what they picked.b. selected colors only at random.c. showed postdecision dissonance.d. couldn’t see the colors.
Researchers have found evidence of cognitive dissonance in the form of postdecision dissonance in which of the following animals?a. dolphinsb. cheetahsc. monkeysd. domestic housecats
Research in which participants’ brains were scanned with MRIs while doing a dissonance-producing task showed that when people encounter dissonance, the ________ areas of the brain decrease in activity, and when dissonance is resolved, the ________ areas of the brain “light up.”a. emotion; reasoningb. reasoning; memoryc. memory; emotiond. reasoning; emotion
A recent MRI study revealed that when participants successfully reduced and resolved their cognitive dissonance, they experienceda. a surge of activity in the reasoning areas of the brain.b. a reduced capacity in the motor areas of the brain.c. pleasurable emotions.d. an increase in activation of the rear hemisphere.
A number of researchers have found that people from ________ cultures are less likely to engage in obvious attempts to reduce cognitive dissonance.a. industrializedb. independentc. primitived. interdependent
A Japanese psychologist by the name of Sakai observed participants partaking in dissonance-reducing behaviors. Sakai also had a fellow group member of the participants observe the dissonance-reducing behavior. The observer then indicated how enjoyable he or she thought a boring task was. Results indicated that the observers experienceda. no dissonance and no dissonance reduction.b. strong dissonance.c. no dissonance reduction.d. a similar level of dissonance reduction as the participant.
A Japanese psychologist by the name of Sakai observed participants partaking in dissonance-reducing behaviors. Sakai also had a fellow group member of the participants observe the dissonance-reducing behavior. The observer then indicated how enjoyable he or she thought a boring task was. These results suggest that Japanese observersa. attended to what their fellow group members said, and ignored the task itself.b. have no internally based attitudes; those are a Western cultural phenomenon.c. experienced dissonance on behalf of fellow members of their group.d. wanted to show solidarity with the experimenter by saying the task was enjoyable.
Triandis (1995) and others have argued that dissonance-reducing behaviors may be less prevalent on the surface in societies in whicha. there is less industrialization.b. the climate is tropical.c. the needs of the group matter more than the individual.d. there is a monarch in a position of real power.
Why would people be less likely to engage in dissonance-reducing behaviors in a collectivist culture?a. because they would be focused on group harmony rather than self-justificationb. because they would not experience dissonancec. because they would focus only on self-justificationd. because they would not be able to change their behavior or add cognitions
87. ________ refers to the tendency of people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.a. Postdecision dissonanceb. Insufficient justificationc. Justification of effortd. Minimal justification
You have worked extremely hard to attain a goal, but soon realize that the goal is not as exciting as you expected. You will probablya. exaggerate the positive qualities of the goal in order to justify your effort.b. exaggerate the negative qualities of the goal in order to obtain sympathy.c. carefully analyze the reasons why you worked so hard to attain the goal.d. deny that you ever believed that the goal was exciting.
Who is most likely to enjoy a boring and lackluster rock and roll concert performed by washed-up, fifty-something “has beens”?a. Paul, who won the tickets in a radio trivia quizb. Mick, who waited in line all night for ticketsc. Keith, who got the tickets for his birthday from his Aunt Berthad. Rod, who used to work as a soundman for the band
Janis has just volunteered to undergo treatment for drug addiction. After she leaves the clinic, she is ________ to stay off drugs because her recovery at the clinic was ________.a. likely; very easy to experienceb. not likely; a very difficult ordealc. likely; a very difficult ordeald. not likely; part of a mandatory sentencing program
Phil spent an hour and a half running cables and toying with connections in order to receive cable TV in his room. When he was finished, he got fifty channels, but all of them were kind of fuzzy. His roommate, Jason, arrived home when Phil was done, and they both sat down to watch TV. Which one will enjoy the cable TV the most?a. Phil, because of a self-fulfilling prophecyb. Phil, because of justification of effortc. Jason, because he didn’t have to spend the time hooking it upd. Jason, because of insufficient punishment
As you and your friends returned and met up for the first time since high school, you find that you’ve all taken different paths in life. Based on cognitive dissonance and the principle of justification of effort, who would be the LEAST satisfied with what he or she is currently doing?a. Jill, who just finished a grueling four-month training period with the Marinesb. Matt, who is in the Peace Corps, living in third-world countries with no modern conveniencesc. Fiona, who is going to a local college with a loose admissions policy, and whose parents are paying her wayd. Ann, who went through a five-step process to be accepted at her college and now is taking rigorous courses
When our behaviors are inconsistent with our values or beliefs, we are NOT likely to experience cognitive dissonance ifa. the beliefs are integral to our self-concepts.b. we engaged in the behavior voluntarily.c. no one observed the inconsistent behavior.d. we can point to external justifications for our behavior.
________ is to dissonance-induced attitude change as ________ is to no attitude change.a. Counterattitudinal advocacy; internal justificationb. External justification; internal justificationc. Internal justification; counterattitudinal advocacyd. Internal justification; external justification.
According to the tenets of dissonance theory, when we cannot find sufficient external justification for acts such as saying something we don’t truly believe, we will most likelya. deny what we said.b. seek internal justifications.c. seek out dissonance.d. increase the number of dishonest deeds we do.
Which of the following people is using an internal justification to reduce dissonance?a. Betty, who points to the fact that she was coerced into an undesirable behaviorb. Colin, who identifies a large reward as the cause of his behaviorc. Terri, who changes her attitude to bring it in line with an undesirable behaviord. Jessie, who reconciles herself to the discomfort that dissonance produces
Two weeks after making a public statement at odds with his previous positions, which politician is most likely to report to his close friends that he sticks by his most recent (contradictory) statement?a. a candidate who spoke at a $1,000 a plate fundraiserb. a candidate who was far behind in the polls and had to shift tacticsc. a candidate who was “cornered” by demonstratorsd. a candidate who couldn’t quite figure out why he contradicted himself
Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell someone else that a tedious, boring task was really interesting. Participants paid ________ modified their original attitudes because they had ________ for lying.a. $20; minimal external justificationb. $1; little external justificationc. $20; an abundance of external justificationd. $1; little internal justification
As mentioned in the text, a Yale researcher (Cohen, 1962) paid some students relatively little and others relatively more to write an essay that contradicted their true beliefs about the local police. Results of his experiment demonstrated thata. students who were paid little were more willing to ride along with the police.b. the greater the external justification, the greater the shift in participants’ attitudes toward the police.c. the size of the incentive changed students’ attitudes only if they privately liked the police.d. in the absence of large incentives, students changed their attitudes about the police.
Imagine that both Vera and Carol are against affirmative action. Vera is offered $50 to write an essay about the benefits of affirmative action, whereas Carol is offered only $1 to write a similar essay. After writing the essays and receiving their payments, both women are asked to report their attitudes toward affirmative action. Assuming that their attitudes were similarly negative at the outset, which of the following results would you expect?a. Vera would be more favorable than Carol toward affirmative action.b. Carol would be more favorable than Vera toward affirmative action.c. Carol and Vera would be equally favorable toward affirmative action.d. Both women would be strongly opposed to affirmative action.
In experiments on counterattitudinal advocacy, people change their attitudes more the lower the external incentives. This finding is inconsistent with the ________ approach to psychology.a. Gestaltb. behavioristc. psychodynamicd. experimental
Recall that in experiments presented in your text (Leippe & Eisenstadt, 1994; 1998), why did white participants experience dissonance after writing essays in favor of doubling scholarship funds for minority students?a. They were racially prejudiced.b. It would mean less scholarship money for white students.c. They had little contact with minority students.d. It would expose their prejudice.
Research presented in the text (McMillan, Stice, & Rohde, 2011) had high school and college women write essays against the “thin is beautiful” idea. By writing about the emotional and physical costs of pursuing this unhealthy body image, the women showeda. significant increases in their satisfaction with their bodies.b. significant decreases in happiness.c. significant increases in anxiety.d. increases in dieting.
Who is most likely to convince him- or herself that he or she believes in the behavior he or she is performing?a. Jackie, who obeys the speed limit when her radar detector tells her there’s a police car in the vicinityb. Loren, who turns down the radio because his mother says it interferes with her concentrationc. Casey, who stops teasing his younger brother because his parents have threatened to take away his television if he continuesd. Miriam, who pulls her math grade up to a “C” because her parents threatened to take away her driving privileges if she continued to fail
The local police want to convince drivers to obey the fifty-five mile per hour speed limit on the highways. The police chief is convinced that doubling speeding fines is the answer. You’ve just read the section of Chapter 6 that deals with insufficient punishment. What would you say to him? a. “That’s not the way to change drivers’ attitudes about obeying the speed limit.”b. “Good idea; that way, drivers will change their attitudes about speeding.”c. “That won’t work if officers don’t enforce the speed limits.” d. “Make sure the severe punishment is swift and certain.”
Because they provide the potential offender ________, threats of harsh punishment seldom produce positive attitude change.a. ample external justification for restraintb. an excuse for psychological reactancec. sufficient internal justification for restraintd. an internal attribution for restraint
If you wanted to make use of the concept of insufficient punishment, how would you discipline your child when she’s misbehaving? Give the child a stern look and tell hera. that you will spank her hard the next time she performs the forbidden behavior.b. nothing else if she stops the forbidden behavior.c. that you will buy her a present if she stops the forbidden behavior.d. that she has only one more chance to improve her behavior.
According to dissonance theorists, the practice of threatening mild punishment works because it arouses ________ cognitive dissonance and therefore causes ________.a. little; a change in attitude toward the forbidden actb. no; little if any frustrationc. much; a change in attitude toward the forbidden actd. much; avoidance of the punishment
Derek likes to bully his little brother Matt. Their mother begins to give Derek the mild punishment of a stern look every time Derek hits Matt. This is sufficient to stop Derek’s bullying, and in time, Derek stops bullying Matt even when his mother is not around. According to theories of insufficient punishment, why might this happen?a. Because there was sufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to devalue the forbidden activity.b. Because there was sufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to place greater value on his relationship with his brother.c. Because there was insufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to devalue the forbidden activity.d. Because there was insufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to place greater value on his relationship with his brother.
Jennifer’s dad wants to convince her to do her homework as soon as she gets home from school. To ensure that Jennifer actually does her homework immediately—whether or not he is there to keep an eye on her—Jennifer’s dad should providea. large monetary rewards when she begins her homework right away. b. mild threats of punishment if she doesn’t begin her homework right away. c. promises of large rewards when she begins her homework right away. d. severe punishment when she doesn’t begin her homework right away.
When preschoolers were forbidden to play with a very attractive toy, some received mild threats of punishment, and others received severe threats of punishment should they disobey (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963). Because they had ________ justification, children in the mild threat condition experienced ________ dissonance, and changed their rating of the forbidden toy.a. ample external; more b. insufficient external; less c. ample external; less d. insufficient external; more
The new governor hires you to devise a plan to stop bullying in the schools. Based on the principle of insufficient punishment, what might be a good way to punish bullies?a. After the first offense, dismiss them from school for the day.b. A “three strikes, you’re out” policy in which the first two incidents go unpunished, but the third leads to expulsion and being placed in a juvenile detention center.c. Physically punish them by letting teachers slap them with yardsticks.d. Tell teachers to give a mild punishment that barely gets the bully to stop the behavior and to be consistent with this mild punishment.
Too late, your neighbor discovered that he couldn’t flush his toilet. He has asked you to come help him unstop his plugged toilet. It’s not a task that you look forward to, but you come over to help. Based on the psychology of insufficient justification, you’d be most likely to change your attitudes about fixing broken plumbing if you helpeda. Tom, because he helped you change a tire last week.b. Ben, because he sometimes steals your morning paper.c. Adam, because he’s a friend who happens to be your neighbor.d. Juan, because he’s your neighbor and your boss.
Jan and Michelle would both like to ride a motorcycle. Jan’s parents explicitly prohibit her from riding a motorcycle and tell her that she’ll be grounded should she choose to disobey them. Michelle’s parents express their concern for her safety and tell her that they would be very disappointed if she decided to take a ride. According to dissonance theory, two months after the warnings, who would be more likely to ride a motorcycle if given the opportunity?a. Jan would be more likely to decide to ride the motorcycle.b. Michelle would be more likely to decide to ride the motorcycle.c. Both would decide to ride the motorcycle, but for different reasons.d. Neither would decide to ride the motorcycle, but for different reasons.
Why does self-persuasion work better than being lectured by other people to behave in a certain way?a. Self-persuasion is based on implicit attitudes.b. Self-persuasion takes place internally and involves convincing yourself of something.c. Self-persuasion is automatic.d. Self-persuasion is usually an effortful and conscious process that takes time.
According to the authors of your text, using ________ rewards or punishments leads to longer lasting attitude change than using ________ rewards or punishments.a. larger; smallerb. tangible; intangiblec. smaller; largerd. meaningful; smaller
Based on information provided by your text, external justification is to ________ as internal justification is to ________.a. temporary change; lasting changeb. temporary change; large rewardc. small reward; lasting changed. small reward; no reward
Recall that Aronson and his colleagues designed experiments to remind students of their own hypocrisy when it came to using condoms during sex. Participants who made videotaped speeches in which they talked about the difficulties they had using condoms actually changed their attitudes and behaviors related to condom use. These experiments are actually variations on the phenomenon of the ________ paradigm.a. justification of effort b. post-decision dissonance c. counterattitudinal advocacy d. insufficient punishment
Assume that in experiments conducted by Aronson and his colleagues Sally was randomly assigned to write and deliver a pro-condom speech to be shown to high school students. She also listed all the times she found it awkward or impossible to use condoms in her sexual encounters. After completing these tasks, Sally reduced her dissonance by reporting a greater willingness to use condoms in her future sexual activities. Why? Shea. was embarrassed by the tasks, and wanted to please the experimenters. b. felt like a hypocrite, and changed her attitude to reduce the dissonance.c. changed her attitude to convince the experimenters to destroy her videotape. d. felt a like a hypocrite and maintained her attitude to maintain dissonance.
Ken participates in a psychology study where he has to make statements that are contrary to his thoughts and values. Then, the researchers reminded him of this inconsistency. Ken has participated in which of the following?a. a cognitive dissonance effectb. a justification of effortc. a rationalization inductiond. a hypocrisy induction
Megan is always reminding her son Andrew not to talk with his mouth full. One morning, Andrew reminds her not to talk with her mouth full. This situation most resembles ________.a. the Ben Franklin effectb. cognitive dissonancec. the hypocrisy-induction paradigmd. justification of effort
In an experiment by Takaku (2006) on road rage, when drivers went through a driving simulation in which they accidentally cut off another driver, and then were cut off themselves, they were quicker toa. become angry.b. lay on the horn.c. forgive the other driver.d. distract themselves.
Jacob recently was late to a meeting because of a traffic jam. Later that day, when his wife is late arriving home, Jacob is probably going to be ________, based on the idea of the hypocrisy induction.a. angrierb. harsherc. more easily frustratedd. forgiving
Based on the Ben Franklin effect, you are most likely to increase your liking for Tony whena. Tony lends you $10.b. you lend Tony $10.c. Tony returns the $10 you lent him.d. Tony finds $10.
When a neighbor asks if he can borrow your chemistry textbook and you do him this favor, dissonance theory would predict that you will like him more due to the Ben Franklin effect, which works because youa. only do favors for people you initially like.b. share an interest in and love for chemistry.c. have to internally justify doing this favor.d. find external justification for doing a favor.
The Ben Franklin effect would predict that you would most like someone ________, whereas behaviorist theories would predict that you would most like someone ________.a. who treated you rudely; who treated you kindlyb. you did a favor for; who did a favor for youc. who rewarded you strongly; whom you rewarded stronglyd. who challenged your attitude; affirmed your attitude
According to cognitive dissonance theory, soldiers may reduce their guilt about killing innocent civilians during wartime bya. dehumanizing their victims.b. killing more enemy soldiers.c. going into therapy.d. telling themselves that the war is almost over.
Why did participants in an experiment conducted by Berscheid and her colleagues (1968) derogate their victims unless they thought they would switch roles with the victim and receive shocks themselves? In this case, participantsa. reasoned that the victim would have a chance to even the score.b. were motivated to justify their cruel behaviors.c. experienced maximal dissonance, and convinced themselves that the victim deserved it.d. chose to become a victim, too, in order to make the situation fairer.
When someone dehumanizes a victim and successfully reduces dissonance in this way, this is likely to lead toa. a continuation or escalation of cruelty.b. a reduction of cruelty.c. a total cessation of cruelty.d. effort justification in the form of hate groups.
According to the authors of your text, what is one way people can begin to learn from their mistakes?a. by adding new cognitions to justify their actionsb. by changing their behavior in response to dissonancec. by recognizing the tendency to justify our actionsd. by using denial and rationalization to cope with distress
In addition to the pull of charismatic leaders, the social support of fellow cult members, and the isolation of cult members from dissenting viewpoints, why else do cult members behave as they do?a. They are people of low intelligence.b. The leaders are authoritarian and the followers are unintelligent.c. The members usually are suicidal and depressed.d. There is a high degree of cognitive dissonance in members’ minds.
According to the authors of your text, when the Bush administration received evidence that there were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq—but after they had already invested troops and money in the war—the administration engaged ina. a conspiracy to hide the truth from the media.b. self-justification to make the war a reasonable course of action.c. an increase in the amount of stereotypes about patriots.d. the political scandal of the twenty-first century.
The authors of your text explain that when political leaders get caught up in a cycle of self-justification, it can have particularly dangerous consequences. What is their advice for avoiding such a cycle in your own life?a. Use a system of checks and balances with friends and family, such as is seen in our government.b. Rely heavily on the advice of other people.c. Defer all crucial decisions to your parents.d. Learn to evaluate your behavior critically and dispassionately.
The authors of your text explain that some commentators believe the Bush administration was trying to deliberately deceive the American people about the nature of their intentions in the conflict in Iraq. However, the authors of your text suggest that it is likely that thea. media is to blame for this impression.b. Bush administration was falling subject to the FAE.c. members of the Bush administration were undergoing cognitive dissonance.d. American people underwent effort justification.

When people act contrary to their self-perceptions as reasonable and sensible people, they experience a feeling known as ________.a. defensive attributionb. low self-esteemc. affective ambivalenced. cognitive dissonance

5. George thinks of himself as an honest person until his brother reminds him that he’s been known to keep extra change given to him by a cashier and to stock his home office for a sideline business with supplies taken from his job. George is now probably feeling a sense of discomfort known asa. misattribution of arousal.b. self-serving bias.c. cognitive dissonance.d. anxiety.

Cognitive dissonance alwaysa. leads to a change in behavior.b. produces discomfort.c. leads to the rationalization trap.d. makes people produce new cognitions.

Of the following, how are individuals most likely to reduce cognitive dissonance?a. By pretending they did not perform a particular behavior.b. By reducing their total number of cognitions.c. By adding new cognitions that are consistent with their behavior.d. By decreasing their arousal.

The most typical ways of reducing dissonance include all of the following EXCEPT ¬¬¬¬¬a. forgetting about our past statements that contradict our behavior.b. changing our behavior to bring it into line with dissonant cognitions.c. justifying our behavior by changing dissonant cognitions.d. justifying our behavior by adding new cognitions.

A tobacco grower says, “I’m not the only one growing it. If I stop, someone else will be there.” Assuming that the man was experiencing dissonance from the fact that he was making his living from a crop that is bad for people’s health, he appears to be reducing this dissonance bya. changing his behavior.b. changing his cognitions.c. adding new cognitions.d. self-affirmation in an unrelated domain.

Talia loves animals but still eats meat. When she experiences dissonance about the contradiction, she tells herself that she also volunteers her time at an animal shelter. This manner of reducing dissonance involvesa. self-affirmation.b. priming.c. self-handicapping.d. growth mindset.

15. Emile just ditched a friend at a party to spend time with a pretty woman. Emile feels uncomfortable but he tells himself it’s because the woman is so hot and not because he treated his friend badly. The way he’s feeling is dissonance, but he tells himself it’s sexual attraction. This describes which of the following?a. self-affirmationb. self-esteemc. misattribution of arousald. priming

17.Scott believes very strongly that saccharine is an unsafe sugar substitute that may even cause cancer. Even though Scott is diabetic, and thus should be using sugar substitutes, he often opts for sugar-laden foods and drinks to avoid saccharine. “I’ll just exercise more later; the sugar isn’t a big deal. I’m really being healthier by avoiding saccharine,” he thinks to himself. Scott’s behavior and thoughts are examples of ________ in the face of cognitive dissonance.a. harmonizingb. rationalizingc. patronizingd. denial

The authors of your text explain that people tend to overestimate how bad they will feel if a negative event were to happen to them. This tendency is called a. the rationalization trap.b. cognitive dissonance.c. self-affirmation.d. the impact bias.

Rudy thinks that if he ever got kicked off the football team he would be depressed for months, and that his life would lose all meaning. In actuality, his response would probably not be this severe or prolonged. What is Rudy demonstrating?a. the impact biasb. self-affirmationc. lowballingd. effort justification

People tend to fall subject to the impact bias (and not understand that they will usually successfully reduce cognitive dissonance) because reducing cognitive dissonance isa. a painful process.b. controlled and conscious.c. largely unconscious.d. quick and effortful.

Jay just found out that he was not accepted into his dream college. Based on information from the authors of your text about impact bias, which of the following best reflects how Jay will react?a. He will become severely depressed.b. He will not go to college at all unless he can get admitted into his dream school.c. He will get over it rather quickly.d. It actually will not bother him in the least.

Imagine you really enjoy lying out in the sun to get a deep, dark tan. If you heard arguments both for and against tanning, you would probably remember arguments for tanning, and arguments against tanning.a. long; shortb. short; longc. plausible; implausibled. implausible; plausible

In a classic experiment, researchers (Aronson & Mettee, 1968) gave positive false feedback to some students, negative false feedback to some students, and no feedback to others. They were interested in seeing whether a boost to self-esteem would affect the likelihood of cheating. In this experiment, what is the independent variable?a. type of feedbackb. cheatingc. self-esteemd. the students

In a classic experiment, researchers (Aronson & Mettee, 1968) gave positive false feedback to some students, negative false feedback to some students, and no feedback to others. They were interested in seeing how self-esteem would affect the likelihood of cheating. What was the result of their experiment?a. Students who had gotten the positive feedback were most likely to cheat.b. Students who had gotten the negative feedback were most likely to cheat.c. Students who had gotten no feedback were least most to cheat.d. Students who had gotten the negative and no feedback were most likely to cheat.

According to the authors of your text, people experience dissonancea. every time they make a decision.b. when they know they did the wrong thing.c. when their goals do not match what society expects of them.d. when they make biased decisions.

According to the authors, every time we make a decision, we experience some amount of dissonance. Why?a. After people invest effort, they are motivated to second-guess themselves.b. The rejected alternative is seldom completely positive.c. The chosen alternative is seldom completely positive.d. People seldom seek out objective information before decision-making.

Chloe debated for a long time about whether to take a psychology or a sociology course, both of which looked interesting. She finally chose the psychology course. Now, because she is experiencing ________, she raves about the psychology course to her friends.a. insufficient justificationb. postdecision dissonancec. a justification of effortd. a threat to self-evaluation maintenance

Someone reminds you to be appropriately grateful for the gifts you receive. Were a dissonance theorist to remind you to be thankful, he or she would be giving you advice on how toa. avoid cognitive dissonance. b. avoid things that might be costly.c. prevent consonance in your cognitions. d. prevent insufficient justification.

Recall that Brehm (1956) asked women to rate the desirability of a number of appliances and then allowed them to choose one of those appliances as a gift. Twenty minutes later, all women re-rated the same appliances, including the one they chose. Women tended to rate the alternatives they rejected lower than they had originally, and to rate their chosen appliance more positively. These results suggest that peoplea. seldom collect enough information before making decisions.b. reduce dissonance by overestimating differences between chosen and unchosen alternatives.c. are more likely to experience cognitive dissonance when decisions are irrevocable.d. experience more dissonance when their decisions implicate their self-concepts as rational and reasonable.

Maria is on a limited budget, and can only afford one album. She really likes two in particular: Frank Sinatra’s Greatest Hits and the soundtrack from the musical Wicked. When she gets to listen to the Frank Sinatra album, she cannot imagine why she ever considered the Wicked album. This is becausea. Maria has to justify buying an album, given her limited budget.b. Frank Sinatra music reminds Maria of her childhood.c. Maria was motivated to reduce her postdecision dissonance.d. Maria wasn’t sure about the online store’s return policy.

Anita spent two months trying to decide whether to buy a PC or a Mac. She finally decided on a Mac. Now, Anita most likelya. wishes she’d bought the PC.b. is certain she made the right decision.c. still thinks PCs and Macs are equally good computers.d. tries to convince all her friends to buy PCs.

After reducing postdecision dissonance, people are more likely to rate the chosen and unchosen alternatives asa. being very similar, with about equal strengths and weaknesses.b. having an equal number of strengths, but the chosen alternative as having fewer weaknesses.c. being more dissimilar, such that the chosen alternative is much more desirable than the unchosen one.d. being similar in terms of weaknesses, but the chosen alternative has more strengths.

All things being equal, it would generate the most dissonance to decide which of twoa. classes to take.b. computers to buy.c. apartments to rent.d. people to marry.

Researchers (Knox & Inkster, 1968) visited a race track and interviewed people betting on the horses, both before and after they had placed their bets. They found that people who were more confident in their betting decisions because .a. had already placed their bets; their bets changed the oddsb. had already placed their bets; they couldn’t change their mindsc. had placed small, two-dollar bets; they stood to lose lessd. were waiting to place large bets; they reported more experience

After filing your ballot for an election, you are more convinced than you were before filing the ballot that you voted for the best candidate. This example illustrates the idea that when decisions are _______, individuals engage in a greater amount of dissonance reduction.a. imminentb. ambiguousc. irrevocabled. simple

According to research presented in the text, students shot a roll of film and printed two photographs. Some were told that they could exchange the one they chose to keep within five days, but others were told that their choice was final. Which group of students liked their photograph best?a. Those who were given the exchange period, because in the U.S., students value choice.b. Those who were not given an exchange period, because the decision was irrevocable.c. They both liked their photos equally well.d. Those who could exchange the photo, because they could copy the first, then get the second as well.

According to research presented in the text, students shot a roll of film and printed two photographs. Some were told that they could exchange the one they chose to keep within five days, but others were told that their choice was final. What was the dependent variable of this experiment?a. condition: choice or no choiceb. condition: photograph 1 or photograph 2c. how much they liked the photosd. the five day exchange period

Of the four people presented below, which one would feel the LEAST regret about altering her appearance, based on information in your text about cognitive dissonance?a. Cheryl, who just got a tattoob. Lisa, who is wearing a new outfitc. Misty, who just got her nails paintedd. Darlene, who is wearing a new shade of lipstick

Carla has just written out a check for $18,999 to pay for her new car. Although the salesperson had initially accepted her check, she is now told that there was a mistake and that the final total should really be $19,250. Carla writes another check to cover the difference so that she can drive out with her new car. Carla has just fallen prey to a questionable sales practice calleda. “lowballing.”b. “bait-and-switch.”c. the “dissonance game.”d. “keep ‘em guessing.”

When unscrupulous salespeople use lowballing as a means of selling cars, they take advantage of buyers’ illusions that their decision to buy a particular car wasa. freely chosen.b. irrevocable.c. easy to make.d. coerced.

Lisa is a car salesperson. She has just gotten you to agree to a deal on a new car and to write out a check for the down payment. She takes this to her manager and comes back a while later saying that, because of taxes and fees, the price of the car will actually come out to $600 over what you agreed upon. According to the research on lowballing, which of the following is most likely to occur?a. You would decide to buy the car anyway because you realize the decision is reversible.b. You would decide to buy the car only if you are not excited by the anticipation of the event.c. You would decide to buy the car anyway because there is an illusion of irrevocability (i.e., you don’t feel that you can reverse your decision).d. You would not buy the car because salespeople are generally ineffective at persuading buyers to do what they want.

Mariah has had a hard semester, and her grades have suffered. She really needs a good grade in psychology to get off academic probation and stay in school. On the next psychology exam, Mariah is sorely tempted to cheat, but she decides not to. Which of the following pairs of cognitions best reflects the source of any dissonance Mariah might experience while deciding not to cheat?a. “My school life could be over”; “I just gave up a chance to help myself.”b. “I’m basically a decent, honest person”; “These exam questions are ambiguous and tricky.”c. “I’m a basically an honest person”; “I’ve never seen any of my friends cheat.”d. “So much is riding on this exam”; “I just know that if I try it, I’ll get caught.”

Imagine that before a test, the professor told Jake that if he is caught cheating, he will be expelled. Imagine that the professor told Amanda that, if caught cheating, her only punishment will be to write a short paper about why cheating is wrong. If both students don’t cheat, what would dissonance theory predict?a. Amanda will feel more honest than Jake will.b. Jake will feel more honest than Amanda will.c. Amanda and Jake will each feel as honest as the other. d. Neither Jake nor Amanda will feel honest because they were both threatened.

According to results of dissonance studies, who is more likely to believe that lying is truly a heinous, unconscionable, and unforgivable act?a. Mark, who was tempted to lie, but told the truth insteadb. Dan, who has always told the truthc. Bill, who lies quite oftend. Julius, who knew he should tell the truth, but lied instead

According to the authors of your text, when people are tempted to behave immorally and they choose to be either moral or immoral in that situation, how do they justify their actions?a. They actually change their attitudes to concur with their actions.b. They merely rationalize their actions, and retain their attitudes.c. They add cognitions to reduce the dissonance.d. They become less satisfied with their behaviors.

Mills (1958) had elementary school children compete for attractive prizes. The children could cheat to win the prizes, but they didn’t know that the experimenter would be assured of detecting the cheaters. Some children cheated, and others did not. The next day, a. none of the students endorsed cheating as acceptable.b. those who had cheated earlier became more lenient in their attitudes about cheating.c. those who didn’t cheat earlier became more lenient in their attitudes about cheating.d. when they were offered a large inducement to cheat, most students cheated.

The authors of your text present a study in which monkeys were given a choice between different colors of M&Ms—later, their preference for different colors of M&Ms was reassessed. The researchers found that the monkeysa. couldn’t remember what they picked.b. selected colors only at random.c. showed postdecision dissonance.d. couldn’t see the colors.

Researchers have found evidence of cognitive dissonance in the form of postdecision dissonance in which of the following animals?a. dolphinsb. cheetahsc. monkeysd. domestic housecats

Research in which participants’ brains were scanned with MRIs while doing a dissonance-producing task showed that when people encounter dissonance, the areas of the brain decrease in activity, and when dissonance is resolved, the areas of the brain “light up.”a. emotion; reasoningb. reasoning; memoryc. memory; emotiond. reasoning; emotion

A recent MRI study revealed that when participants successfully reduced and resolved their cognitive dissonance, they experienceda. a surge of activity in the reasoning areas of the brain.b. a reduced capacity in the motor areas of the brain.c. pleasurable emotions.d. an increase in activation of the rear hemisphere.

A number of researchers have found that people from ________ cultures are less likely to engage in obvious attempts to reduce cognitive dissonance.a. industrializedb. independentc. primitived. interdependent

A Japanese psychologist by the name of Sakai observed participants partaking in dissonance-reducing behaviors. Sakai also had a fellow group member of the participants observe the dissonance-reducing behavior. The observer then indicated how enjoyable he or she thought a boring task was. Results indicated that the observers experienceda. no dissonance and no dissonance reduction.b. strong dissonance.c. no dissonance reduction.d. a similar level of dissonance reduction as the participant.

A Japanese psychologist by the name of Sakai observed participants partaking in dissonance-reducing behaviors. Sakai also had a fellow group member of the participants observe the dissonance-reducing behavior. The observer then indicated how enjoyable he or she thought a boring task was. These results suggest that Japanese observersa. attended to what their fellow group members said, and ignored the task itself.b. have no internally based attitudes; those are a Western cultural phenomenon.c. experienced dissonance on behalf of fellow members of their group.d. wanted to show solidarity with the experimenter by saying the task was enjoyable.

Triandis (1995) and others have argued that dissonance-reducing behaviors may be less prevalent on the surface in societies in whicha. there is less industrialization.b. the climate is tropical.c. the needs of the group matter more than the individual.d. there is a monarch in a position of real power.

Why would people be less likely to engage in dissonance-reducing behaviors in a collectivist culture?a. because they would be focused on group harmony rather than self-justificationb. because they would not experience dissonancec. because they would focus only on self-justificationd. because they would not be able to change their behavior or add cognitions

87. ________ refers to the tendency of people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.a. Postdecision dissonanceb. Insufficient justificationc. Justification of effortd. Minimal justification

You have worked extremely hard to attain a goal, but soon realize that the goal is not as exciting as you expected. You will probablya. exaggerate the positive qualities of the goal in order to justify your effort.b. exaggerate the negative qualities of the goal in order to obtain sympathy.c. carefully analyze the reasons why you worked so hard to attain the goal.d. deny that you ever believed that the goal was exciting.

Who is most likely to enjoy a boring and lackluster rock and roll concert performed by washed-up, fifty-something “has beens”?a. Paul, who won the tickets in a radio trivia quizb. Mick, who waited in line all night for ticketsc. Keith, who got the tickets for his birthday from his Aunt Berthad. Rod, who used to work as a soundman for the band

Janis has just volunteered to undergo treatment for drug addiction. After she leaves the clinic, she is to stay off drugs because her recovery at the clinic was .a. likely; very easy to experienceb. not likely; a very difficult ordealc. likely; a very difficult ordeald. not likely; part of a mandatory sentencing program

Phil spent an hour and a half running cables and toying with connections in order to receive cable TV in his room. When he was finished, he got fifty channels, but all of them were kind of fuzzy. His roommate, Jason, arrived home when Phil was done, and they both sat down to watch TV. Which one will enjoy the cable TV the most?a. Phil, because of a self-fulfilling prophecyb. Phil, because of justification of effortc. Jason, because he didn’t have to spend the time hooking it upd. Jason, because of insufficient punishment

As you and your friends returned and met up for the first time since high school, you find that you’ve all taken different paths in life. Based on cognitive dissonance and the principle of justification of effort, who would be the LEAST satisfied with what he or she is currently doing?a. Jill, who just finished a grueling four-month training period with the Marinesb. Matt, who is in the Peace Corps, living in third-world countries with no modern conveniencesc. Fiona, who is going to a local college with a loose admissions policy, and whose parents are paying her wayd. Ann, who went through a five-step process to be accepted at her college and now is taking rigorous courses

When our behaviors are inconsistent with our values or beliefs, we are NOT likely to experience cognitive dissonance ifa. the beliefs are integral to our self-concepts.b. we engaged in the behavior voluntarily.c. no one observed the inconsistent behavior.d. we can point to external justifications for our behavior.

is to dissonance-induced attitude change as is to no attitude change.a. Counterattitudinal advocacy; internal justificationb. External justification; internal justificationc. Internal justification; counterattitudinal advocacyd. Internal justification; external justification.

According to the tenets of dissonance theory, when we cannot find sufficient external justification for acts such as saying something we don’t truly believe, we will most likelya. deny what we said.b. seek internal justifications.c. seek out dissonance.d. increase the number of dishonest deeds we do.

Which of the following people is using an internal justification to reduce dissonance?a. Betty, who points to the fact that she was coerced into an undesirable behaviorb. Colin, who identifies a large reward as the cause of his behaviorc. Terri, who changes her attitude to bring it in line with an undesirable behaviord. Jessie, who reconciles herself to the discomfort that dissonance produces

Two weeks after making a public statement at odds with his previous positions, which politician is most likely to report to his close friends that he sticks by his most recent (contradictory) statement?a. a candidate who spoke at a $1,000 a plate fundraiserb. a candidate who was far behind in the polls and had to shift tacticsc. a candidate who was “cornered” by demonstratorsd. a candidate who couldn’t quite figure out why he contradicted himself

Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell someone else that a tedious, boring task was really interesting. Participants paid modified their original attitudes because they had for lying.a. $20; minimal external justificationb. $1; little external justificationc. $20; an abundance of external justificationd. $1; little internal justification

As mentioned in the text, a Yale researcher (Cohen, 1962) paid some students relatively little and others relatively more to write an essay that contradicted their true beliefs about the local police. Results of his experiment demonstrated thata. students who were paid little were more willing to ride along with the police.b. the greater the external justification, the greater the shift in participants’ attitudes toward the police.c. the size of the incentive changed students’ attitudes only if they privately liked the police.d. in the absence of large incentives, students changed their attitudes about the police.

Imagine that both Vera and Carol are against affirmative action. Vera is offered $50 to write an essay about the benefits of affirmative action, whereas Carol is offered only $1 to write a similar essay. After writing the essays and receiving their payments, both women are asked to report their attitudes toward affirmative action. Assuming that their attitudes were similarly negative at the outset, which of the following results would you expect?a. Vera would be more favorable than Carol toward affirmative action.b. Carol would be more favorable than Vera toward affirmative action.c. Carol and Vera would be equally favorable toward affirmative action.d. Both women would be strongly opposed to affirmative action.

In experiments on counterattitudinal advocacy, people change their attitudes more the lower the external incentives. This finding is inconsistent with the ________ approach to psychology.a. Gestaltb. behavioristc. psychodynamicd. experimental

Recall that in experiments presented in your text (Leippe & Eisenstadt, 1994; 1998), why did white participants experience dissonance after writing essays in favor of doubling scholarship funds for minority students?a. They were racially prejudiced.b. It would mean less scholarship money for white students.c. They had little contact with minority students.d. It would expose their prejudice.

Research presented in the text (McMillan, Stice, & Rohde, 2011) had high school and college women write essays against the “thin is beautiful” idea. By writing about the emotional and physical costs of pursuing this unhealthy body image, the women showeda. significant increases in their satisfaction with their bodies.b. significant decreases in happiness.c. significant increases in anxiety.d. increases in dieting.

Who is most likely to convince him- or herself that he or she believes in the behavior he or she is performing?a. Jackie, who obeys the speed limit when her radar detector tells her there’s a police car in the vicinityb. Loren, who turns down the radio because his mother says it interferes with her concentrationc. Casey, who stops teasing his younger brother because his parents have threatened to take away his television if he continuesd. Miriam, who pulls her math grade up to a “C” because her parents threatened to take away her driving privileges if she continued to fail

The local police want to convince drivers to obey the fifty-five mile per hour speed limit on the highways. The police chief is convinced that doubling speeding fines is the answer. You’ve just read the section of Chapter 6 that deals with insufficient punishment. What would you say to him? a. “That’s not the way to change drivers’ attitudes about obeying the speed limit.”b. “Good idea; that way, drivers will change their attitudes about speeding.”c. “That won’t work if officers don’t enforce the speed limits.” d. “Make sure the severe punishment is swift and certain.”

Because they provide the potential offender ________, threats of harsh punishment seldom produce positive attitude change.a. ample external justification for restraintb. an excuse for psychological reactancec. sufficient internal justification for restraintd. an internal attribution for restraint

If you wanted to make use of the concept of insufficient punishment, how would you discipline your child when she’s misbehaving? Give the child a stern look and tell hera. that you will spank her hard the next time she performs the forbidden behavior.b. nothing else if she stops the forbidden behavior.c. that you will buy her a present if she stops the forbidden behavior.d. that she has only one more chance to improve her behavior.

According to dissonance theorists, the practice of threatening mild punishment works because it arouses cognitive dissonance and therefore causes .a. little; a change in attitude toward the forbidden actb. no; little if any frustrationc. much; a change in attitude toward the forbidden actd. much; avoidance of the punishment

Derek likes to bully his little brother Matt. Their mother begins to give Derek the mild punishment of a stern look every time Derek hits Matt. This is sufficient to stop Derek’s bullying, and in time, Derek stops bullying Matt even when his mother is not around. According to theories of insufficient punishment, why might this happen?a. Because there was sufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to devalue the forbidden activity.b. Because there was sufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to place greater value on his relationship with his brother.c. Because there was insufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to devalue the forbidden activity.d. Because there was insufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to place greater value on his relationship with his brother.

Jennifer’s dad wants to convince her to do her homework as soon as she gets home from school. To ensure that Jennifer actually does her homework immediately—whether or not he is there to keep an eye on her—Jennifer’s dad should providea. large monetary rewards when she begins her homework right away. b. mild threats of punishment if she doesn’t begin her homework right away. c. promises of large rewards when she begins her homework right away. d. severe punishment when she doesn’t begin her homework right away.

When preschoolers were forbidden to play with a very attractive toy, some received mild threats of punishment, and others received severe threats of punishment should they disobey (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963). Because they had justification, children in the mild threat condition experienced dissonance, and changed their rating of the forbidden toy.a. ample external; more b. insufficient external; less c. ample external; less d. insufficient external; more

The new governor hires you to devise a plan to stop bullying in the schools. Based on the principle of insufficient punishment, what might be a good way to punish bullies?a. After the first offense, dismiss them from school for the day.b. A “three strikes, you’re out” policy in which the first two incidents go unpunished, but the third leads to expulsion and being placed in a juvenile detention center.c. Physically punish them by letting teachers slap them with yardsticks.d. Tell teachers to give a mild punishment that barely gets the bully to stop the behavior and to be consistent with this mild punishment.

Too late, your neighbor discovered that he couldn’t flush his toilet. He has asked you to come help him unstop his plugged toilet. It’s not a task that you look forward to, but you come over to help. Based on the psychology of insufficient justification, you’d be most likely to change your attitudes about fixing broken plumbing if you helpeda. Tom, because he helped you change a tire last week.b. Ben, because he sometimes steals your morning paper.c. Adam, because he’s a friend who happens to be your neighbor.d. Juan, because he’s your neighbor and your boss.

Jan and Michelle would both like to ride a motorcycle. Jan’s parents explicitly prohibit her from riding a motorcycle and tell her that she’ll be grounded should she choose to disobey them. Michelle’s parents express their concern for her safety and tell her that they would be very disappointed if she decided to take a ride. According to dissonance theory, two months after the warnings, who would be more likely to ride a motorcycle if given the opportunity?a. Jan would be more likely to decide to ride the motorcycle.b. Michelle would be more likely to decide to ride the motorcycle.c. Both would decide to ride the motorcycle, but for different reasons.d. Neither would decide to ride the motorcycle, but for different reasons.

Why does self-persuasion work better than being lectured by other people to behave in a certain way?a. Self-persuasion is based on implicit attitudes.b. Self-persuasion takes place internally and involves convincing yourself of something.c. Self-persuasion is automatic.d. Self-persuasion is usually an effortful and conscious process that takes time.

According to the authors of your text, using rewards or punishments leads to longer lasting attitude change than using rewards or punishments.a. larger; smallerb. tangible; intangiblec. smaller; largerd. meaningful; smaller

Based on information provided by your text, external justification is to as internal justification is to .a. temporary change; lasting changeb. temporary change; large rewardc. small reward; lasting changed. small reward; no reward

Assume that in experiments conducted by Aronson and his colleagues Sally was randomly assigned to write and deliver a pro-condom speech to be shown to high school students. She also listed all the times she found it awkward or impossible to use condoms in her sexual encounters. After completing these tasks, Sally reduced her dissonance by reporting a greater willingness to use condoms in her future sexual activities. Why? Shea. was embarrassed by the tasks, and wanted to please the experimenters. b. felt like a hypocrite, and changed her attitude to reduce the dissonance.c. changed her attitude to convince the experimenters to destroy her videotape. d. felt a like a hypocrite and maintained her attitude to maintain dissonance.

Ken participates in a psychology study where he has to make statements that are contrary to his thoughts and values. Then, the researchers reminded him of this inconsistency. Ken has participated in which of the following?a. a cognitive dissonance effectb. a justification of effortc. a rationalization inductiond. a hypocrisy induction

Megan is always reminding her son Andrew not to talk with his mouth full. One morning, Andrew reminds her not to talk with her mouth full. This situation most resembles ________.a. the Ben Franklin effectb. cognitive dissonancec. the hypocrisy-induction paradigmd. justification of effort

In an experiment by Takaku (2006) on road rage, when drivers went through a driving simulation in which they accidentally cut off another driver, and then were cut off themselves, they were quicker toa. become angry.b. lay on the horn.c. forgive the other driver.d. distract themselves.

Jacob recently was late to a meeting because of a traffic jam. Later that day, when his wife is late arriving home, Jacob is probably going to be ________, based on the idea of the hypocrisy induction.a. angrierb. harsherc. more easily frustratedd. forgiving

Based on the Ben Franklin effect, you are most likely to increase your liking for Tony whena. Tony lends you $10.b. you lend Tony $10.c. Tony returns the $10 you lent him.d. Tony finds $10.

The Ben Franklin effect would predict that you would most like someone , whereas behaviorist theories would predict that you would most like someone .a. who treated you rudely; who treated you kindlyb. you did a favor for; who did a favor for youc. who rewarded you strongly; whom you rewarded stronglyd. who challenged your attitude; affirmed your attitude

According to cognitive dissonance theory, soldiers may reduce their guilt about killing innocent civilians during wartime bya. dehumanizing their victims.b. killing more enemy soldiers.c. going into therapy.d. telling themselves that the war is almost over.

Why did participants in an experiment conducted by Berscheid and her colleagues (1968) derogate their victims unless they thought they would switch roles with the victim and receive shocks themselves? In this case, participantsa. reasoned that the victim would have a chance to even the score.b. were motivated to justify their cruel behaviors.c. experienced maximal dissonance, and convinced themselves that the victim deserved it.d. chose to become a victim, too, in order to make the situation fairer.

When someone dehumanizes a victim and successfully reduces dissonance in this way, this is likely to lead toa. a continuation or escalation of cruelty.b. a reduction of cruelty.c. a total cessation of cruelty.d. effort justification in the form of hate groups.

According to the authors of your text, what is one way people can begin to learn from their mistakes?a. by adding new cognitions to justify their actionsb. by changing their behavior in response to dissonancec. by recognizing the tendency to justify our actionsd. by using denial and rationalization to cope with distress

According to the authors of your text, when the Bush administration received evidence that there were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq—but after they had already invested troops and money in the war—the administration engaged ina. a conspiracy to hide the truth from the media.b. self-justification to make the war a reasonable course of action.c. an increase in the amount of stereotypes about patriots.d. the political scandal of the twenty-first century.

The authors of your text explain that when political leaders get caught up in a cycle of self-justification, it can have particularly dangerous consequences. What is their advice for avoiding such a cycle in your own life?a. Use a system of checks and balances with friends and family, such as is seen in our government.b. Rely heavily on the advice of other people.c. Defer all crucial decisions to your parents.d. Learn to evaluate your behavior critically and dispassionately.

The authors of your text explain that some commentators believe the Bush administration was trying to deliberately deceive the American people about the nature of their intentions in the conflict in Iraq. However, the authors of your text suggest that it is likely that thea. media is to blame for this impression.b. Bush administration was falling subject to the FAE.c. members of the Bush administration were undergoing cognitive dissonance.d. American people underwent effort justification.

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After reducing postdecision dissonance, people are more likely to rate the chosen and unchosen alternatives as __________.

When people act contrary to their self-perceptions as reasonable and sensible people, they experience a feeling known as ________.a. defensive attributionb. low self-esteemc. affective ambivalenced. cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance alwaysa. leads to a change in behavior.b. produces discomfort.c. leads to the rationalization trap.d. makes people produce new cognitions.

Of the following, how are individuals most likely to reduce cognitive dissonance?a. By pretending they did not perform a particular behavior.b. By reducing their total number of cognitions.c. By adding new cognitions that are consistent with their behavior.d. By decreasing their arousal.

Talia loves animals but still eats meat. When she experiences dissonance about the contradiction, she tells herself that she also volunteers her time at an animal shelter. This manner of reducing dissonance involvesa. self-affirmation.b. priming.c. self-handicapping.d. growth mindset.

The authors of your text explain that people tend to overestimate how bad they will feel if a negative event were to happen to them. This tendency is called a. the rationalization trap.b. cognitive dissonance.c. self-affirmation.d. the impact bias.

People tend to fall subject to the impact bias (and not understand that they will usually successfully reduce cognitive dissonance) because reducing cognitive dissonance isa. a painful process.b. controlled and conscious.c. largely unconscious.d. quick and effortful.

According to the authors of your text, people experience dissonancea. every time they make a decision.b. when they know they did the wrong thing.c. when their goals do not match what society expects of them.d. when they make biased decisions.

All things being equal, it would generate the most dissonance to decide which of twoa. classes to take.b. computers to buy.c. apartments to rent.d. people to marry.

When unscrupulous salespeople use lowballing as a means of selling cars, they take advantage of buyers’ illusions that their decision to buy a particular car wasa. freely chosen.b. irrevocable.c. easy to make.d. coerced.

Researchers have found evidence of cognitive dissonance in the form of postdecision dissonance in which of the following animals?a. dolphinsb. cheetahsc. monkeysd. domestic housecats

A number of researchers have found that people from ________ cultures are less likely to engage in obvious attempts to reduce cognitive dissonance.a. industrializedb. independentc. primitived. interdependent

87. ________ refers to the tendency of people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.a. Postdecision dissonanceb. Insufficient justificationc. Justification of effortd. Minimal justification

________ is to dissonance-induced attitude change as ________ is to no attitude change.a. Counterattitudinal advocacy; internal justificationb. External justification; internal justificationc. Internal justification; counterattitudinal advocacyd. Internal justification; external justification.

In experiments on counterattitudinal advocacy, people change their attitudes more the lower the external incentives. This finding is inconsistent with the ________ approach to psychology.a. Gestaltb. behavioristc. psychodynamicd. experimental

Because they provide the potential offender ________, threats of harsh punishment seldom produce positive attitude change.a. ample external justification for restraintb. an excuse for psychological reactancec. sufficient internal justification for restraintd. an internal attribution for restraint

According to the authors of your text, using ________ rewards or punishments leads to longer lasting attitude change than using ________ rewards or punishments.a. larger; smallerb. tangible; intangiblec. smaller; largerd. meaningful; smaller

Based on information provided by your text, external justification is to ________ as internal justification is to ________.a. temporary change; lasting changeb. temporary change; large rewardc. small reward; lasting changed. small reward; no reward

Megan is always reminding her son Andrew not to talk with his mouth full. One morning, Andrew reminds her not to talk with her mouth full. This situation most resembles ________.a. the Ben Franklin effectb. cognitive dissonancec. the hypocrisy-induction paradigmd. justification of effort

In an experiment by Takaku (2006) on road rage, when drivers went through a driving simulation in which they accidentally cut off another driver, and then were cut off themselves, they were quicker toa. become angry.b. lay on the horn.c. forgive the other driver.d. distract themselves.

Jacob recently was late to a meeting because of a traffic jam. Later that day, when his wife is late arriving home, Jacob is probably going to be ________, based on the idea of the hypocrisy induction.a. angrierb. harsherc. more easily frustratedd. forgiving

Based on the Ben Franklin effect, you are most likely to increase your liking for Tony whena. Tony lends you $10.b. you lend Tony $10.c. Tony returns the $10 you lent him.d. Tony finds $10.

According to cognitive dissonance theory, soldiers may reduce their guilt about killing innocent civilians during wartime bya. dehumanizing their victims.b. killing more enemy soldiers.c. going into therapy.d. telling themselves that the war is almost over.

When someone dehumanizes a victim and successfully reduces dissonance in this way, this is likely to lead toa. a continuation or escalation of cruelty.b. a reduction of cruelty.c. a total cessation of cruelty.d. effort justification in the form of hate groups.

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is to dissonance-induced attitude change as is to no attitude change.a. Counterattitudinal advocacy; internal justificationb. External justification; internal justificationc. Internal justification; counterattitudinal advocacyd. Internal justification; external justification.

According to the authors of your text, using rewards or punishments leads to longer lasting attitude change than using rewards or punishments.a. larger; smallerb. tangible; intangiblec. smaller; largerd. meaningful; smaller

Based on information provided by your text, external justification is to as internal justification is to .a. temporary change; lasting changeb. temporary change; large rewardc. small reward; lasting changed. small reward; no reward